K. APARNA*, V. RAJA RAJSWARI, M. SUBBARAO, Y. REDDIRAMU, A. RESHMA AND Y. YOHAN
Department of Crop Physiology, S.V. Agricultural College, ANGRAU, Tirupati-517 502, Chittoor Dt., Andhra Pradesh.

ABSTRACT

A field experiment was conducted during kharif, 2015 at Agricultural Research station (Millets), ANGRAU, Tirupati. Field
experiment was laid out in factorial randomized block design, replicated thrice with two ma in treatments i.e. adequately irrigated, rainfed and ten sub treatments (genotypes). Growth and physiological traits viz. plant height, dry matter accumulation, leaf area index (LAI), harvest index and grain yield significantly reduced under rainfed conditions compared to irrigated control.

Among the genotypes, the three pre release genotypes viz., BR-36, PPR-1012 and PPR-2773 were under ranifed as well as irrigated conditions recorded significantly higher physiological efficiency in terms of LAI, total plant drymatter along with higher HI and yield. It denotes their efficiency in performing under drought condition. Hima (released variety) recorded low performance and it may not fit for cultivation in rain fed areas.

KEYWORDS: Ragi, rainfed, genotypes, physiological efficiency, harvest index, yield.

INTRODUCTION

Finger Millet, known locally as Ragi in the Indian sub-continent is mostly cultivated as a base crop in a
mixed cropping. The crop is mostly cultivated in sub
marginal lands and limited moisture conditions. Much of
the ragi area is grown in kharif season and 70 per cent of
kharif area is grown under rainfed situations .This is the
prime reason for poor productivity of the ragi crop in
India. Among drought mitigation technologies,
development or identification of drought tolerant finger
millet genotypes is a potential option and easily adopted
by the resource poor farmers.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Hence, the present investigation was aimed at
evaluating the relative performance of ten (seven prerelease
and three released) ragi genotypes for
morphological, physiological characters, drought tolerant
traits, yield and its attributes and grain quality parameters.
These genotypes were evaluated in a field experiment,
laid out in factorial randomized block design, replicated
thrice with two main treatments i.e. adequately irrigated,
rainfed and ten sub treatments (genotypes) in kharif 2015
at Agricultural Research Station(Millets), Perumallapalli,
ANGRAU, Andhra Pradesh. Prophylactic measures were
taken for protecting the crop from pest and diseases.
During the experimental period there was long dry spell
for 35 DAS to 65 DAS, which has coincided with panicle
initiation and flowering stages. Data on plant height (cm),
total plant dry weight (g plant-1), Leaf area index, Grain
yield and Harvest index were recorded at harvest in both
rainfed and irrigated treatments. The data were
statistically analyzed ad described by Panse and Sukhatme
(1985).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The ragi genotypes differed in their response to
rainfed and irrigated treatments in terms of physiological
and yield traits. All the physiological characters used for
evaluating ragi genotypes under moisture stress conditions
viz., plant height, leaf area, total plant dry matter
significantly varied between moisture stress treatments
and genotypes at harvest (Table 1).
Among the genotypes, the three pre release
genotypes viz., BR-36, PPR-1012 and PPR-2773 recorded
significantly higher plant height, LAI and higher dry
matter under ranifed as well as irrigated conditions. Hima
(Released variety) recorded lowest values other genotypes
PPR 2885, PPR-1044, PPR-1040, PR-10-30, Srichitanya
and Vakula recorded moderate values. Dry matter
accumulation and distribution is an important factor
indicating partitioning efficiency of a genotype. In
general, soil moisture determines the accumulation of dry
matter in different plant parts. Similar results were
reported in ragi (Muhammod and Azam Ali 2007,
Venkatesh Babu et al., 2014.)
The important green leaf growth parameters viz., leaf
area index (LAI) which denotes light interception and
current photosynthesis were affected in rainfed treatments
compared to irrigated control. The genotypes, BR36,PPR-1012
and PPR-2773 which maintained higher leaf
area and dry matter also maintained higher LAI under
both irrigated and rainfed conditions. It denotes that
drought tolerant capability of these genotypes as they
maintained higher physiological activity in terms of higher
green leaf area, thus sustained higher total plant dry weight
Grain yields and Harvest Index were significantly
reduced due to moisture stress compared to control. The
genotypic differences and their interaction effects were
also showed significant. BR-36, PPR-1012 and PPR-2773
recorded higher yield and harvest index both under
irrigated and imposed moisture stress conditions. The
higher harvest index of these genotypes represents an
increased physiological capacity to mobilize
photosynthates and translocate them efficiently to organs
of economic value, i.e. grain yield as opined by Wallace
et al. (1972).

CONCLUSION

Among the genotypes, the three pre release genotypes viz., BR-36, PPR-1012 and PPR-2773 are superior in terms of physiological efficiency, drought tolerance, yield and yield components under ranifed as
well as irrigated conditions. These can be further tested
under minikit trails to recommend for rainfed areas.
ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF FOXTAIL MILLET CULTIVATION IN
KURNOOL DISTRICT OF ANDHRA PRADESH
S. MEHARUNNISA BEGUM, S. RAJESWARI*, N. VANIAND B. RAVINDRA REDDY
Department of Agricultural Economics, S.V. Agricultural College, ANGRAU, Tirupati 517 502, Chittoor Dt., Andhra Pradesh
ABSTRACT
The focus of the present study was on economic analysis of foxtail millet in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh. A sample
size of 30 farmers cultivating foxtail millet was selected using random sampling method. Field level data was elicited for the
agriculture year 2015-16 through personal interview method. The per hectare total cost of cultivation of foxtail millet was
worked out to be 24,406.11. From the results it was evident that korra farmers were obtaining negative net returns. But the
Gross margin was 3,767.60. In the short run, the farmers aim was to cover the variable costs. Hence the farmers are continuing
the cultivation of korra crop under rainfed conditions.
KEYWORDS: Cost of cultivation, foxtail millet, cost concepts, income measures.
INTRODUCTION
Minor millets are small seeded annual cereals and
forage grasses cultivated for food, feed, forage and other
industrial uses. The term minor millets embraces at least
12 to 14 species of the grass family and those with
potential to become important crops in semi-arid
production systems are finger millet (Ragi, Eleusine
coracana), foxtail millet ( Navane, Setaria italica), proso
millet (Baragu, Panicum miliaceum), barnyard millet
(Oodahe, Echinochloa frumentacea), little millet (Savi,
Panicum miliare) and kodo millet (Haraka, Paspalum
scrobiculatum). They frequently possess unusual ability
for adaptation like tolerance to drought and low soil
fertility most often; they are grown with low inputs in
emergencies following crop failure in traditional
agricultural systems. Minor millets received very little
attention despite their potential. There are many unique
traits possessed by the minor millets that could make them
important components of semi- arid production systems.
In spite of all the extraordinary qualities and capacities
of millet farming systems, the area under millet production
has been shrinking over the last five decades and rapidly.
Due to relentless promotion of other crops such as rice
and wheat for intensive farming in select few resource
rich areas under irrigated conditions (MINI, 2009).
Another major threat that millets facing in the country is
in the form of an unnatural promotion of maize, which is
resulting in maize invasion in various parts of the country
owing to the corporate-induced demand for bio-fuels and
poultry feed (Michaelraj and Shanmugam, 2013).
Foxtail millet (Setaria italica) is one of the oldest
crops cultivated for hay, pasture and food grain. Foxtail
millet also known as Navane, Kangni, Tenai, Korra and
Rala in various colloquial names in different Indian
languages. Known for its drought tolerance, it was once
an indispensable crop of vast rainfed areas in semi- arid
regions in India.
Foxtail millet was recognised as diabetic food. The
millet is rich in dietary fibre (6.7%), protein (11%) and
low in fat (4%). Foxtail millet occupied an area of 0.40
lakh hectare producing 0.42 lakh tonnes with a yield of
1050 kg per hectare in Andhra Pradesh. 58.97 per cent of
the states area under korra cultivation was from Kurnool
district and 68.18 per cent of states production is also
from Kurnool. The district yield is 1214 kg per hectare
which was more than the states yield (Directorate of
Economics and Statistics, 2015-16).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Andhra Pradesh state was purposively selected for
the study and Kurnool district which was having highest
korra cultivating area was selected purposively. Out of
the 54 mandals of Kurnool district, Peapully mandal
which has maximum acreage under korra was selected.
The selected villages were Kommemarri and
Madhavaram. A complete list of all the farmers growing
this crop in each selected village was prepared and fifteen
farmers from each village were selected randomly.
Therefore, the study was based on the findings from 30
sample farmers. The required primary data was collected
from selected farmers on pre-structured schedule through
personal interviewing method for the agricultural year
2015-16. Profitability, the cost of cultivation and returns
were worked out on per hectare basis.
The formulae used for calculating cost concepts and
farm efficiency measures were
Cost A1 : All variable costs excluding family labour
cost and including land revenue, depreciation
and interest on working capital.
Cost A2 : Cost A1 + Rent paid for leased-in land.
Cost B1 : Cost A1 + Imputed interest on value of owned
capital assets (excluding land)
Cost B2 : Cost B1 + Imputed rental value of owned land
(net of land revenue) + Rent paid for leasedin
land
Cost C1 : Cost B1 + Imputed value of family labour
Cost C2 : Cost B2 + Imputed value of family labour
Cost C3 : Cost C2 + 10% of Cost C2 on account of
managerial functions performed by farmers.
Farm efficiency measures are
Farm business income = Gross income – Cost A1
Family labour income = Gross income – Cost B2
Net income = Gross income – Cost C3
Farm investment income = Net income + rental
value of owned land + interest on owned fixed capital
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the study area it was observed that the average
size of the family of selected respondents growing korra
was 4.49 and the number of family members working on
the farm was 1.90. The average size of land holding was
1.48 hectare. The composition and the value of farm assets
reflect the economic status of farmers. The per hectare
value of total assets was 2,56,304.05. Further, it was
noticed that land, the basic resource of agricultural
Table 1. Cost of cultivation of korra crop in Kurnool
district of Andhra Pradesh
(Rupees per hectare)
S. No. Particulars Korra farms
I Operational costs
a. Human labour 8,122.50
(33.28)
i. Owned labour 2,885.00
(11.82)
ii. Hired labour 5,237.50
(21.46)
b. Bullock labour 5,312.00
(21.76)
i. Owned labour 1,904.00
(7.80)
ii. Hired labour 3,408.00
(13.96)
c. Machinery power 3,880.00
(15.90)
i. Owned 695.00
(2.85)
ii. Hired 3,185.00
(13.05)
d. Seed 90.00
(0.37)
e. Manures and fertilizers
i. Manures –
ii. Fertilizers 1,200.00
(4.92)
h. Interest on working capital 627.9
(2.58)
Total operational costs 19,232.4
(78.80)
II Fixed costs
b. Rental value of owned land 5,000.00
(20.49)
c. Depreciation 120.27
(0.49)
d. Interest of fixed capital 53.44
(0.22)
Total fixed costs 5173.71
(21.20)
Total Costs 24,406.11
(100.00)
Note: Figures in parentheses indicate percentages to the total
production was the single most valuable asset on the
sample farms.
Cost of Cultivation of Korra
The costs incurred in cultivation of korra by the
sample farmers are presented in Table 1. Human labour
accounted for 33.28 per cent of the total costs, followed
by bullock labour (21.76%), machinery power (15.90%)
and fertilizers (4.92%). Seeds accounted for 0.37 per cent
of the total variable cost. The total variable costs
accounted to be 19,232.40 per hectare.
It was found that rental value of owned land was
5,000 per hectare and accounted for 20.49 per cent of
the total costs. The other components of fixed cost were
depreciation and interest on fixed capital accounting for
0.49 and 0.22 per cent of the total costs. The total fixed
costs worked out to be 5173.71 per hectare and the
total costs in cultivation of korra worked out to be
24,406.11 per hectare.
Table 2. Various cost concepts in cultivation of korra
(Rupees per hectare)
S. No Costs Korra farms
1 Cost A1/A2 16,467.67
(67.47)
2 Cost B1 16,521.11
(67.69)
3 Cost B2 21,521.11
(88.18)
4 Cost C1 19,406.11
(79.51)
5 Cost C2 24,406.11
(100.00)
6 Cost C3 26,846.72
(110.00)
Various cost concepts involved in the cultivation of
korra are presented in Table 2. Cost A1 which at least
must be covered for viable and feasible farming was
estimated at 16,467.67 per hectare. In this study area,
there was no leasing activity among the selected farmers,
hence cost A1 and A2 were the same. Cost B1 which
includes interest on fixed capital in addition to cost A1
worked out to 16,521.11 and Cost B2 which includes
cost B1 in addition to rental value of owned land was
estimated at 21,521.11. On an average, the total cost of
cultivation (Cost C2) of korra per hectare was 24,406.11.
If 10 per cent cost C2 was added to cost C2 on account of
managerial functions performed by the farmer, then cost
C3 was 26,846.72.
The details of physical output and returns per hectare
from the production of korra are presented in Table 3. It
is observed that the yield of main product and by product
was 10.00 quintals and 5.00 cartloads per hectare
respectively. The gross returns and net returns from korra
cultivation were 23,000 and -1406.11 per hectare
respectively. From the results it was evident that korra
farmers were incurring losses. The gross margin which
is the difference between gross income and total variable
cost was 3,767.60. This indicated the rationality of
cultivating korra by the farmers inspite of losses. Farm
business income, family labour income and farm invest
income were of the order of 6,532.33, 1,478.89 and
1206.72 per hectare respectively.
Table 3. Returns and income measures in the
cultivation of korra
(Rupees per hectare)
S. No. Particulars Unit Korra farms
1. Yield in physical units
a. Main product Qtls 10.00
b. By product 5.00
2. Yield in monetary units
a. Main product 18,000.00
b. By product 5,000.00
3. Gross returns 23,000.00
4. Net returns over Cost C2 -1406.11
5. Gross Margin 3,767.6
6. Farm business income 6,532.33
(28.40)
7. Family labour income 1,478.89
(6.43)
8. Farm investment income 1206.72
(5.25)
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
On an average, the total cost of cultivation per
hectare of korra was 24,406.11. The break-up of total
costs into operational and fixed costs indicated that the
operational costs were 19,232.40 (78.80%) while fixed
costs were 5,173.71 (21.21%). It was observed that on
an average, korra cultivators realized gross income of
23,000 per hectare. However the respondents incurred
a loss of 1406.11 per hectare. Farm business income,
family labour income and farm invest income were of
the order of 6,532.33, 1,478.89 and 1206.72 per
hectare respectively. In the last two decades importance
of millets as food staples has been declining due to various
factors that include rising income, growing urbanization
and government policies favouring the production and
consumption of fine cereals like rice and wheat. But
keeping in view the nutritional qualities of millets,
promotion of research on standardization of value added
products from millets is
LITERATURE CITED
Michaelraj, P.S.J and Shanmugam, A. 2013. A study on
millets based cultivation and consumption in India.
International Journal of Marketing, Financial
Services & Management Research. 2: 49-58.
MINI, 2009. Millets Future of food and farming. Millet
Network of India – Deccan Development Society,
FIAN, India.
Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2015-16.
A STUDY ON THE EFFECT OF HEAVY METALS ON SDS-PAGE PROTEIN
PROFILES OF Spirulina platensis
G. NAGENDRA BABU* AND S.D.S. MURTHY
Department of Biochemistry, Krishna Teja College, Tirupati – 517 502. Chittoor Dt., Andhra Pradesh
ABSTRACT
Sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS PAGE) analyses of the total protein profile of Spirulina
platensis was studied to know the effect of heavy metals Silver and Chromium. The excitation spectra of heavy metal treated
cells showed the changes in chromophore protein interaction of various PBPs due to the shift in peak position. Further studies by
SDS-PAGE revealed that the heavy metal treatment with either of Cr and Ag caused the decrease in the B subunit of PC and the
loss of 41, 34 kDa linker polypeptides. Between these two heavy metals, Ag is responsible for the loss of above polypeptides in
large extent than that of Cr. In addition, an additional polypeptide at 27 kDa was noticed which could be degratory product of
high molecular weight containing 41 kDa. However, the isolated PBsomes from Cr and Ag pretreated cells exhibited the characteristic
blue shift in the peak position of absorption and emission and the decrease of PC fluorescence emission intensity and loss
of 22 kDa as observed in earlier with heavy metal treated intact cells. The study clearly indicated that upon incubation of intact
cells with Cr or Ag the PC of PBsomes gets irreversibly altered such that the changes of PBsomes even persist after the isolation
of PBsomes from heavy metal treated samples.
KEYWORDS: Spirulina platensis, silver, chromium, SDS page.
INTRODUCTION
Cyanobacteria are among the most known
widespread, morphologically distinct and abundant
prokaryotes. They are oxygenic photosynthetic
autotrophs, originally considered as a class of algae, the
blue-green algae possessing a unique ability in fixing
atmospheric nitrogen. Cyanobacteria are known to adapt
to environmental stresses by suitably modifying their
proteome (Apte and Bhagwat, 1989). Living organisms,
especially micro-organisms, are exposed to various types
of natural stresses such as nutrient limitation, pesticides,
pollution, drought, salinity, temperature, pH, light
intensity and quality etc. Cyanobacteria is a group of
Gram-negative bacteria that can survive in a wide variety
of extreme environmental conditions. These
cyanobacteria are exposed to heavy metals which are
indispensable to the modern agricultural practice. The
use of these pesticides over the years has resulted in
problems caused by their interactions with the biological
systems in the environment and has deleterious effects
on cyanobacteria (Pankratz, 2003). To survive in the
stressful conditions all organisms including bacteria will
have to adopt different strategies at ecological,
physiological, biochemical and molecular level. A
molecular technique that was proved to be useful in typing
bacterial strains is sodium dodecyl sulphate
polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) of whole
cell bacterial proteins, wherein differences seen in protein
bands in different circumstances could successfully be
used to group tolerant bacteria. A Protein in the
cyanobacterial thylakoid membranes was identified to be
a sensitive protein to environmental stress conditions.
Under various unfavorable conditions such as drought,
nutrition deficiency, heat, chemical stress, ozone
fumigation as well as UV-B and visible light stresses the
turnover of this protein gets affected (Giardi, 1997). Rath
and Adhikary (2007) demonstrated that the exposure of
estuarine cyanobacterium Lyngbya aestuarii to UV-B
radiation resulted in differential expression of cellular
proteins. The aim of the work was to study protein profile
changes and differentially expressed proteins in three
cyanobacteria under the study.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Microorganism and culture condition
The experimental organism S. platensis, the mother
culture was obtained from National Facility for Blue
Green Algal collection, New Delhi, India and cultured
autotropically. The cells were transferred from the agar
slants to liquid medium i.e. cultivated in Zarrouk’s
medium (1966). Experiments to evaluate the effect of
different stress conditions were carried out at Department
of Biochemistry, Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.
Andhra Pradesh. Conical flasks of 100 ml capacity were
prepared containing 50 ml S. platensis culture with initial
optical density 0.1 for all treatment groups. The cultures
placed at west facing window receiving natural day light
at temperature 30 ± 2°C and shaken gently thrice a day to
avoid clumping and enhance the growth. Measurement
of optical density (O.D.) is particularly suitable for
determination of growth of S. platensis.
Protein extraction in cyanobacteria
The cyanobacteria cultures were centrifuged at 10
600 g for 5 min and the medium was poured out and
cultures were resuspended in 80% acetone solution and
sonicated using a sonifier cell disruptor (Branson Digital
Sonifier S- 450D, USA) for 20 s each in an ice bath, with
40 s cooling breaks up to one minute at 70% intensity.
The sonicated samples were left overnight at 400C. The
samples were then centrifuged at 10,600 g for 5 min and
the pellets obtained were suspended in the solubilization
buffer containing 7.5 ml of ultra-pure water, 2.5 ml of
1MTris– HCl pH 6.8, 16 ml of 10% SDS, and 1 ml of
80% glycerol (v/v) (Gentili et al., 2005). Finally, sample
buffer-mercaptoethanol, Sodium containing deionized
water, Dodecyl sulphate (SDS), 1M Tris-Hcl (pH 6.8),
glycerol and bromophenol blue at a ratio of 2:1 was added
to the samples followed by 3 min boiling.
Sodium dodecyl poly acrylamide gel electrophoresis
(SDS-PAGE) assay
The extracted whole cell proteins from the isolates
together with higher and lower range of protein molecular
weight marker were mixed with SDS PAGE sample buffer
in a 2: 1 ratio and the mixtures were heated in a heater
block for 3 min at 1000C. After cooling the samples at
room temperature, the insoluble materials were removed
by centrifugation. The supernatants thus obtained were
submitted to SDSPAGE followed by electrophoresis at
70 V until the bromophenol blue dye front reaches the
bottom of the gel. Following electrophoresis, the gel was
stained overnight with Coomassie Blue R-250 and then
destained in the same solution. Finally, the whole cell
protein profiles of the samples were visualized under
Trans white light and captured using Alpha innotech. All
the experiments were performed in three independent
replicates and only those spots present in at least two
gels of the independent set were taken for analysis.
RESULT AND DISCUSSION
SDS-PAGE polypeptide profile of total soluble
protein of control and heavy metal treated cells were
depicted in Fig 1 and Fig 2 and the SDS-PAGE of total
protein of control cells of Spirulina resolved its
components in the range of 97.4 kDa to 14.4 kDa (Fig 1).
The PBPs of intact cells were in the range of 16-22 kDa.
Since these proteins are chromopore linked, they can be
seen on the gel prior to the staining with comassive
brilliant blue. Figure 1 shows the polypeptide profile of
Spirulina which were treated with 50 to 100 µM of Cr.
The treatment caused gradual disappearance of 22 kDa.
In addition it causes a decrease in 32 and 34 kDa
poplypeptides which are related to reaction center of PS
II. Cr treatment, in addition exhibited the appearance of
27 kDa polypeptide which could be most probably
degradative product of higher molecular weight
containing polypeptide (41 kDa). Figure 2 shows the
effect of Ag on the polypeptide profile of total protein of
control and Ag treated Spirulina cells. In the case of Ag
the effect is more pronounced and it caused the maximum
disappearance of 34 kDa, 41 kDa and 22 kDa. The 22
kDa polypeptide is known to be related to the PC β subunit
of PBsomes. Thus the heavy metal treatment might be
inducing some of the proteases which can specifically
degrade the polypeptides related to PS II reaction center
and LHC of PS II (β subunit of PC).
To support the above results the experiments were
planned in two ways a) in vivo studies, where the PBsomes
were be isolated from the heavy metal treated cells b) in
vitro studies, where the treatment given to the PBsomes
after their isolation from control cells. To achieve this an
attempt was made to isolate the PBsomes from control
and heavy metal treated samples by using sucrose density
gradient. After their isolation sucrose was removed by
dialysis and samples were used for spectral and
electrophoretic measurements. Figure 3 shows the spectral
characteristics of isolated PBsomes. The absorption
spectra of PBsomes exhibited main peak at 615 nm due
to the PC (phycocyanin) and a shoulder at 650 nm is due
to APC (Allo Phycocyanin). The PBsomes excited with
545 nm light beam showed characteristic emission at 670
nm emanating from the longer wave length absorption
species (Fig 4). This indicates that the energy transfer in
isolated PB somes in intact and the energy is getting
transferred from PC to APC B. These spectral
characteristics are in agreement with the observation of
earlier workers (Murthy, 1991). Figure 5 shows the
polypeptide profile of PBsomes isolated form Spirulina
cells. Besides bilin carrying subunits of PBps (16 to 22
kDa), five non pigmented polypeptides were clearly
associated with PBsomes. The polypeptide at 97 kDa is
the anchor polypeptide which links the PBsomes to the
thylakoid membrane. The polypeptide between 32 and
37 kDa are the linker polypeptides which helps in the
attachment of PC to PC rods. The intense bands between
16 to 22 kDa are the subunits of PBPs (both PC and APC).
In this range there are total four polypeptides which
belongs to PC (α and β) an APC (α and β). The anchor
polypeptide has been demonstrated to be susceptible for
proteolytic degradation and hence care should be taken
to prevent the degradation during isolation procedure.
To correlate the functional aspects of PBsomes with
structural aspects an attempt has been made to resolve
the changes in the polypeptide profile of PBsomes which
were isolated from both Cr and Ag treated Spirulina cells
(Fig 6 and 7). SDS-polypeptide profile of PBsomes of
control Spirulina cells were resolved in the range of 14.4
kDa to 97.4 kDa. In the electrophoretogram besides what
bilin carrying PBPs (16 to 22 kDa), five non pigmented
polypeptides were clearly seen (lane 1), associated with
PBsomes. The intense bands of the subunits of PBPs both
PC (α and β) and APC (α and β) (Fig 6) was clearly seen.
The Cr treatment caused loss in the content of 22 kDa
polypeptide by 50% without affecting other PBPs. In
addition it caused the degradation of 32 and 37 kDa
polypeptides without affecting much 35 kDa. In the case
of Ag almost 22 kDa was degraded by almost 75% and
only faint bands were observed in the case of linker
polypeptides (Fig 7). From the data, it is clear that Ag is
able to cause more loss in the linker polypeptides and PC
β subunit when compared to that of Cr treated samples.
This loss in polypeptides could be due to induction of
metal ion specific proteases which could degrade b
subunit as well as linker polypeptide preferentially.
Pankratz, F.B., Doebel, C., Farenhorst, A and
Goldsborough, L.G. 2003. Interactions between
Algae (Selenastrum Capricornutum) and Pesticides:
Implications for Managing Constructed Wetlands for
Pesticides Removal. Journal of Environmental
Science and Health. 38:147-155.
Rath, J and Adhikary, S.P. 2007. Response of the Estuarine
Cyanobacterium Lyngbya Aestuarii to UV-B
Radiation. Journal of Applied Phycology. 19: 529-
536.
Zarrouk, C. 1966. Contribution a Ietude d’une cyanophyce
influence de diverse facteurs physiques et chimiques
sue la croissance et la phtosynthese de Spiruline
maxima, (Setch et Gardner) Geitler. Ph.D Thesis,
University of Paris, Paris.
LITERATURE CITED
Apte, S.K and Bhagwat, A.A. 1989. Salinity stress
induced proteins in two nitrogen fixing Anabaena
strains differentially tolerant to salt. Journal of
Bacteriology. 171: 909–915.
Gentili, Francesco, Marie-Charlotte Nilsson, Olle
Zackrisson, DeLuca Thomas, H and Anita, Sellstedt.
2005. Physiological and molecular diversity of
feather moss associative N2-fixing cyanobacteria.
Journal of Experimental Botany. 56(422): 3121–
3127.
Giardi, M.T., Masojidek, J and Godde, D. 1997. Effects
of Abiotic Stresses on the Turnover of the D1 reaction
Center II Protein. Physiologia Plantarum. 101: 635-
642.
EFFICACY OF ORGANICS IN CONJUNCTION WITH INORGANICS ON YIELD OF
GROUNDNUT UNDER RAINFED AND PROTECTIVE IRRIGATION CONDITIONS
IN RAINFED ALFISOLS OF ANDHRA PRADESH
G. NARAYANA SWAMY*, A.V. NAGAVANI, K. BHARGAVI, B. SAHADEVA REDDY,
M.V. VIJAY SANKAR BABU AND V. UMAMAHESH
Agricultural Research Station, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Anantapur – 515 001, Andhra Pradesh.
ABSTRACT
A field experiments were conducted at Agricultural Research Station, Ananthapuramu during 2014 and 2015 kharif seasons
to compare the yield and yield attributes under organics in conjunction with inorganics in rainfed alfisols with and without
protective irrigations during long dry spells. The experiment was laid out in Randomized block design in two separate blocks
with same treatments, one block is under purely rainfed and another block was given protective irrigation. The comparison was
made among the supply of 100 per cent nitrogen through organics, 100 per cent through inorganics, 50 per cent organic and 50
per cent inorganic and with predominant sheep penning practice in the region under both rainfed and protective irrigated conditions.
The results revealed that the crop yields increased from the 2014 to 2015 kharif under both the rainfed and protective
irrigation conditions. But the magnitude of increase in the yield was more in protective irrigation as compared to the rainfed
conditions. The study revealed that the organics in conjunction with inorganics significantly influenced the yield of groundnut
under rainfed and protective irrigation conditions in alfisols of Andhra Pradesh. The greater response was observed for the
application of organic manures and sheep penning under both rainfed and protective irrigation situations.
KEYWORDS: Organic, inorganic, sheep penning, rainfed, protective irrigation, groundnut yield.
INTRODUCTION
The production and productivity of Groundnut
(Arachis hypogaea L.) in rainfed alfisols of Andhra
Pradesh is low as compared to the national average. The
majority of the groundnut area is in the Anantapur and
other districts of the rayalaseema region. The low
productivity of kharif groundnut may be due to cultivation
in marginal and sub marginal lands, little or no biomass
recycling, low soil organic matter, sub optimal nutrient
application, low nutrient use efficiency and multi nutrient
deficiencies, coupled with frequent drought. There is a
high variability in the onset of monsoon, very low and
poor distribution of rainfall during growing season. The
agro ecological region is complex, risk prone and under
invested. Therefore, there is a need for regionally
differentiated nutrient management strategies (Nataraj et
al., 2016). Coupled with the above reasons, groundnut is
an exhaustive crop and removes large amount of macro
and micro nutrients from soil. None of the sources of
nutrients can meet the total plant nutrient need of crop
adequately. Hence integrated use of nutrients from
chemical and locally available organic sources is the most
efficient way (Solanki et al., 2006). The integrated use
of locally available organic sources not only supplies the
nutrients but also improves the soil physical properties,
enhances the soil fertility status and intern enhances the
sustainability of the rainfed production system. Keeping
this in view the present study was under taken to evaluate
the efficacy of organics in conjunction with inorganics
on yield of kharif groundnut under rainfed and protective
irrigation conditions in alfisols of Andhra Pradesh.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Field experiments were conducted at Agricultural
Research Station, Ananthapuramu during kharif, 2014 and
2015 in fixed plots for two consecutive seasons to study
the efficacy of organics in conjunction with inorganics
on yield of groundnut under rainfed and protective
irrigation conditions. The soil type is alfisols and
topography of the site is nearly level to gentle (1-3%
slope). The experiment was laid out in completely
randomized block design with three replications in two
separate blocks viz., purely rainfed block and protective
irrigation block. Both block have eleven same treatments
(Table 1 and 2) viz; T1: Control (no organics and
inorganics), T2: Recommended dose of fertiliser (RDF)
(20 kg N ha-1: 40 kg P2O5 ha-1: 40 kg K2O ha-1), T3: 50 %
nitrogen through urea + 50 % nitrogen through FYM ,T4:
100% nitrogen through FYM, T5: 50% nitrogen through
urea + 50% nitrogen through leaf compost, T6: 100%
nitrogen through leaf compost, T7: 50% nitrogen through
urea + 50% nitrogen through sheep manure, T8: 100%
nitrogen through sheep manure,T9: 100 % nitrogen
through sheep penning,T10: 100% nitrogen through
enriched groundnut shells and T11: 50% nitrogen through
urea + 50 % nitrogen through enriched groundnut shell.
Prior to the experiment initial soil analysis (0-30 cm
depth) was done in the laboratory using standard soil
analytical procedures (Jackson, 1973). Organic manures
were applied two weeks before sowing of the crop.
Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were applied in the
form of urea, diammonium phosphate and muriate of
potash respectively at the time of sowing. In protective
irrigation block, two irrigations were given at 55 and 75
DAS during 2014 and one irrigation at 75 DAS was given
at 75 DAS during 2015 with 20 mm depth of water. Postharvest
soil samples were analyzed for different physicochemical
properties. The yield and yield attributes were
recorded and compared with rainfed and protective
irrigation block and also among the different sources of
organics in conjunction with inorganics on yield of
groundnut.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Number of filled pods plant-1
During both the years of experimentation the
organics in conjunction with inorganics on yield of
groundnut under rainfed and protective irrigation
conditions in alfisols exerted marked influence on the
number of filled pods plant-1 in groundnut (Table 1). The
pod formation is the complex process and governed by
complementary interaction between source and sink. Thus
the favorable effect of readily available nutrients with 100
per cent nitrogen through sheep penning is evident with
higher dry matter accumulation and effective translocation
of photosynthates to the sink which in turn resulted in
higher number of filled pods plant-1. Further, application
of nutrients through FYM and fertilizers or recommended
dose of fertilizers alone under rainfed conditions and leaf
compost under protective irrigated condition was
attributed to increased size of the source and consequently,
the enhanced partitioning of photosynthates towards
newly formed sink. The results were in conformity with
the findings of Reddy et al. (2010).
Number of ill filled pods plant-1
Under both the farming situations during two
consecutive years of study, the number of ill filled pods
plant-1 did not exhibit any significant difference among
the treatments except control although the lowest number
of ill filled pods plant-1 were recorded with 100 per cent
nitrogen through sheep penning (Table 1). Control recorded
the higher number of ill filled pods plant-1
.
Hundred pod weight
The higher hundred pod weight with the sheep
penning treatments might be due to adequate supply of
nutrients to the crop (Table 2). Further, sheep penning
and FYM have also helped in improvement of soil physico
chemical properties viz., aggregate stability and soil
organic carbon content as well as moisture availability
for better growth and development of the plant. Similar
findings were also obtained by Kamalakannanan and
Ravichandran (2013) and Ola et al. (2013).
Hundred kernel weight
During both the years of study, under rainfed
condition, the highest kernel weight of groundnut was
recorded with supply of 100 per cent nitrogen through
sheep penning (Table 2). This might be due to improved
soil fertility in terms of soil organic matter, soil biological
population there by better availability and uptake of plant
nutrients, which might have synergistic effect in
maintaining the higher chlorophyll content, favorable
enzyme activity and other biological process, enable
higher out turn of photosynthates for production of bold
seeds. Similar results were reported by Datta et al. (2014)
and Patil et al. (2015). The lowest hundred kernel weight
was recorded with control (T1) due to poor soil fertility
status.
Shelling percentage
During both the years of study, the highest shelling
percentage in groundnut was recorded with supply of 100
per cent of N through sheep penning (Table 2). This might
be attributed to enhanced partition of photosynthates to
the developing pods. Moreover, the higher hundred kernel
weight with the above treatments might have resulted in
higher shelling percentage. More number of bigger sized
pods plant-1 might have accommodated larger kernels
providing sufficient space for development with balanced
and adequate supply of nutrients. Similar observations
were made by Datta et al. (2014) and Jena (2015).
Pod yield
Pod yield in groundnut was significantly influenced
by combinations of organic and inorganic sources of
nitrogen. During kharif, 2014 and 2015, the highest pod
yield (842 and 1530 kg ha-1) of groundnut was recorded
with supply of 100 per cent nitrogen through sheep
penning (Table 3). Under protective irrigation during
kharif 2014 and 2015, the same treatment recorded highest
pod yield of 1280 and 2013 kg ha-1
.
The beneficial effect of sheep penning, FYM in
conjunction with fertilizers may be due to the effect of
organic matter in improving the physical, chemical and
biological environment of the soil conducive for better
plant growth and thereby higher pod yield (Reddy et al.
2010). The slight increase in pod yield with recommended
dose of fertilizes might be due to immediate availability
of adequate quantity of NPK required for the crop growth
and development (Devi et al., 2003). The pod yield being
function of yield attributes which was favorably
influenced by supply of 50 per cent nitrogen through
organics and 50per cent through inorganics which might
have led to the reduction of C: N ratio and stimulation of
the mineralization process of organic nitrogen that might
have intern resulted in greater accumulation of dry matter
right from the early stage of the crop growth. The results
were agreement with the findings of Patil et al. (2015).
Haulm yield
The increased haulm yield was noticed in
combination of organics and inorganics and sheep penning
treatment (Table 3). The reason may be attributed to the
beneficial effect of combined use of organic manure and
fertilizers. Where the nutrient availability increased
through enhanced microbial activity, conversions from
unavailable to available forms and also due to improved
physical, chemical and bio-chemical conditions. Similar
results of obtaining higher haulm yield with the
application organic manures was reported by Patil et al.
(2015).
When nitrogen was not supplied either through
organic or inorganic source, crop has to depend obviously
upon soil nitrogen, which is not sufficient to produce even
reasonable haulm yields. In the present study, non-supply
of nitrogen through any source in control (T1) resulted in
poor performance of the crop which could be noticed by
the lowest values of all the growth parameters, yield
attributes, nutrient uptake and pod yield. These results
are in conformity with the findings of Shankaranarayana
et al. (2004).
CONCLUSION
Based on the outcome of the investigation, it could
be inferred that the efficacy of organic manures,
particularly the sheep penning showed greater response
and yielded better even under rainfed conditions. On the
contrary, under protective irrigation during critical stage
of the crop and also during long dry spells organic
manures in conjunction with the inorganics given higher
yield. This revealed that the organics in conjunction with
inorganics significantly influences the yield of groundnut
under rainfed and protective irrigation conditions in
alfisols of Andhra Pradesh. This also suggested that the
conjunction of organic and inorganic sources of nitrogen
is necessary for sustainable production of groundnut in
low rainfall areas of Andhra Pradesh.
CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE TEST TO MEASURE THE KNOWLEDGE
LEVEL OF RICE FARMERS
P. BALAHUSSAIN REDDY*, P.V.K. SASIDHAR AND T.P. SASTRY
Programme Coordinator, KVK, ANGRAU, Kalikiri, Chittoor Dt., Andhra Pradesh
ABSTRACT
The knowledge test was developed to measure the knowledge of Rice farmers in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh.
Relevant items covering all aspects of Rice cultivation were collected from literature available and in consultation with scientists
of Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS), Tirupati. After getting jury opinion on the items of test, index of item difficulty,
index of item discrimination and index of item validity were worked out. To administer the knowledge test a respondent
was given one mark for each correct answer and zero mark for each wrong answer. The total score of the respondents on all items
of the test was taken on the basis of their knowledge score and the respondents were categorized into three groups having low,
medium and high knowledge about recommended package of practices of Rice.
KEYWORDS: Knowledge, reliability, validity, point biserial correlation, item difficulty index, item discrimination.
Prologue:
Acharya Ranga Krishi Vigyan Kendra (RASS –
ARKVK) was established in 1992 in Chittoor district of
Andhra Pradesh. Rice is one of the major crops in the
district cultivated under tanks and bore wells during both
kharif and rabi seasons. RASS – ARKVK has been
continuously sensitizing the farmers for the past two
decades on location specific, technically and
economically feasible technologies that improve the
productivity of the Rice through various extension efforts
like training programmes, front line demonstrations, field
days, exposure visits mass media etc. To bring
improvement in the cognitive domain of the Rice farmers
behaviour it is essential to know about their existing
knowledge levels on the recommended package of
practices. For adoption of recommended improved
technologies it is prerequisite on the part of adopters that
they possess good knowledge about these technologies
and practices.
Knowledge is defined as “those behaviours and test
situations which emphasizes the remembering either by
recognition or by recall of ideas and materials on some
phenomenon” (Bloom, 1956).
Knowledge for the present study was operationally
defined as the quantum of technical information possessed
by the respondents about improved cultivation practices
recommended for Rice.
The main intention of the knowledge test was to
identify the extent of knowledge of beneficiaries as well
as non- beneficiaries of KVK on Rice production
technologies. Hence a test was constructed for testing
knowledge in Rice. The following steps were followed
for standardizing the knowledge test.
METHODOLOGYCollection of knowledge items
The content of the test was composed of items asked
in the form of questions. The important factor considered
in collecting the items for knowledge test was to determine
and classify the object to be measured by it by taking of
the respondent’s abilities. For this test, a comprehensive
list of 48 knowledge questions on recommended
production technologies of Rice crop were collected from
pertinent literature, discussions held with the experts of
Regional Agricultural research Station & S.V. Agricultural
College, Tirupati, feedback from progressive farmers and
personal experiences.
Selection of items
The selection of the items was done based on the
following criteria.
i) Response to item should promote thinking rather
than rote memorization.
ii) They should differentiate the well informed
respondent from the less informed and should have certain
difficulty value.
iii) The items included should cover all areas of
knowledge about Rice production technologies.
The items were edited and drafted in such a way
that each item highlighted only one idea and did not have
any ambiguity.
Form of questions
The items selected for construction of knowledge
test were framed into multiple choice questions, fill in
the blanks and true / false type questions. The particulars
on the form of questions were furnished below.
Pre-testing
Pre-testing of the items was done as suggested by
Conard (1948). The items selected for the Knowledge
test were pre-tested separately by administering the items
to 30 respondents. Care was taken to see that these 30
respondents were outside the main sample of the study.
Item analysis
The item analysis was carried out so as to yield two
kinds of information viz., index of ‘Item difficulty’, index
of ‘Item discrimination’ and index of ‘Item validity’. The
index of item discrimination provided information on how
well an item measures or discriminates in agreement with
the rest of the test, while the index of ‘Item difficulty’
indicates the extent to which an item was difficult. The
index of ‘Item validity’ provided the information on how
well an item measured or discriminated in agreement with
rest of the test. The function of the item discrimination
index was to find out whether an item really discriminates
a well informed respondent from poorly informed
respondent.
Item analysis for Rice
The 48 items were administered to 30 respondents
who were not included in sample but they were included
in pre-testing. The data thus obtained was subjected for
typical item analysis. To analyze 48 items each one of
the 30 respondents to whom the test items administered
was scored on the basis of the score allotted, ‘one’ for
correct response and ‘Zero’ for incorrect response. After
computing the total score obtained for each of the 30
respondents on 48 items, they were arranged in order from
highest to lowest. These 30 respondents were then divided
into six equal groups, arranged in descending order of
total scores obtained by them. These groups were labeled
as G1, G2, G3, G4, G5 and G6 respectively with five
respondents in each group. For the purpose of item
analysis, the middle two groups G3 and G4 were
eliminated keeping only four extreme groups with high
and low scores. The data of correct responses for each of
the 48 items were tabulated for each of these four groups.
Item difficulty index (P)
The index of item difficulty was worked out as the
percentage of the respondents answering on items
correctly. The assumption in this item index of difficulty
was that the difficulty is linearly related to the level of
respondents’ knowledge about Rice production practices.
When a respondent answered an item, it was assured that
the item was less difficult than his ability to cope with it.
In this study with this assumption, the items with P values
ranging from 30 to 70 were considered for final selection
of knowledge items. It was calculated by following
formula:
P =
No. of respondents answered correctly
Total No. of respondents
Item discrimination index (E1/3)
The second criterion for item selection was the item
discrimination index indicted by “E1/3” which is calculated
by the formula.
E1/3 =
(S1+S2) – (S5+S6)
N/3
where S1, S2 and S5, S6 are the frequencies of correct
answers in the groups G1, G2 and G3 and G6 respectively.
‘N’ is the total number of respondents in the sample
selected for the item analysis i.e., 30.
The items with discrimination index 0.30 to 0.70
were selected for the final test since the discrimination
index varies from 0 to 1 was considered necessary to select
items with atleast 0.30 discrimination index as the lowest
and 0.70 as the highest discrimination index point in order
to have wider continuum for the discrimination index.
The values of the discrimination index for the knowledge
items on recommended production technologies for Rice
are presented.
Point biserial correlation (rpb)
The main aim of calculating point biserial correlation
was to work out the internal consistency of the items i.e.,
the relationship of the total score to a dichotomized
answer to any given item. In a way, the validity power of
the item was computed by correlation of the individual
item of the whole test. The point biserial correlation for
each of the item of preliminary knowledge test calculated
by using the formula suggested by Garrett (1966).
rpb =
MP – MQ
× pq
SD
where,
rpb = point biserial correlation
MP = Mean of the total scores of the respondents who
answered the item correctly
(or)
MP =
Sum total of xy
Total number of correct answers
MQ = Mean of the total scores of the respondents who
answered the item incorrectly
(or)
MQ =
Sum total of x – Sum total of y
Total number of wrong answers
SD = Standard deviation of the entire sample
P = Proportion of the respondents giving correct
answer to the item (or)
P =
Total number of correct answers
Total number of respondents
Q = Proportion of the respondents giving incorrect answer
to the item (or)
Q = 1 – P
X = Total score of the respondent for all items
Y = Response of the individual for the items
(Correct = 1; Incorrect = 0)
XY = Total score of the respondent multiplied by the
response of the individual to the item (Correct
= 1; Incorrect = 0)
A Point biserial correlation of atleast 0.15 is
recommended and it is established that ‘good’ items have
point biserial values above 0.25 (Varma, 2007). Hence in
this study, items having significant point biserial
correlation > 0.25 were selected for the final test of the
knowledge.
Representativeness of the test
Care was taken to see that the test items selected
finally covered the entire universe of the relevant
behavioural aspects of respondents’ knowledge about
recommended production technologies of Rice.
Total items selected
Out of the 48 items of the Rice crop, 28 items were
finally selected based on
1. Items with difficulty level indices ranging from
30 to 70
2. Items with discrimination indices ranging from
0.30 to 0.70
3. Items having point biserial values > 0.25
Thus the finally selected knowledge test items
comprised of 3 test items, multiple choice, direct questions
and Yes / No types totalling to 28 items test battery on
knowledge of production technologies of Rice. The
selected items with P, E1/3 and rpb values are shown below.
The knowledge test for Rice was subjected to
reliability as below.
Reliability of the test
Test – retest method was used to compute the
reliability of the test. The tests were administered to 30
respondents separately with an interval of 15 days. The
two sets of knowledge scores obtained by the farmers
were correlated. The correlation coefficient (r = 0.80) was
highly significant indicating a high degree of
dependability of the instrument for measuring knowledge
of Rice farmers.
Validity
The validity of the test items was tested by the
method of point biserial correlation (rpb). The items with
> 0.25 values indicated the validity of the items in relation
to knowledge test designed to measure the knowledge of
production technologies of Rice.
Content validity
The content validity of the knowledge test was
derived from a long list of test items represented the whole
universe of production technologies of Rice crop,
collected from various sources as discussed earlier. It was
assumed that the score obtained by administering the
knowledge test of the study measures what was intended
to measure.
Thus the knowledge test developed in the present
study measures the knowledge of the farmers of both
adopted and non-adopted villages of KVK on Rice
production technologies and it showed a greater degree
of reliability and validity indicating that the test items
were valid.
Scoring pattern
The 28 selected knowledge test items of Rice were
arranged under different types as multiple choice, fill up
the blanks and yes/no type. The correct response to each
test was scored ‘one’ and incorrect response a score of
‘zero’. that the knowledge score of a respondent is the
summation of correctly answered items out of total of 28
items. The possible knowledge score for Rice test ranges
from 0 to 28.
Administration of the test
The entire interview schedule was prepared in Telugu
language and it made the job of investigator very easy
and enabled him to ask exactly what was intended to do
so. Each item in the knowledge test of Rice was read out
to the respondents in Telugu by the investigator and the
responses in the form of correct or incorrect answer were
recorded. The correct answer was assigned a weightage
of ‘one’ and ‘zero’ to incorrect.
Categorization
The mean and standard deviation of all the
respondents’ scores were computed for classifying the
knowledge level in different categories. Based on the
knowledge scores obtained the farmers were grouped into
three categories by using mean and standard deviation.
Categories
1. Low knowledge — Less than (Mean – SD)
2. Medium knowledge — From (Mean + SD)
3. High Knowledge — Above (Mean + SD )
Epilogue:
The test so developed could be used for assessing
the knowledge levels of Rice farmers. Based on the
knowledge levels of the farmers, the programmes may
be modified accordingly to perk up the knowledge levels
of the farmers.
LITERATURE CITED
Bloom, B.S.(ed). 1956. Taxonomy of Education
Objectives Vol 1. Cognitive Domain, New York :
McKay.
Garrett, H.E. 1966. Statistics in Psychology and
Education. David McKay company Inc. and
Longman Group Ltd., New York.
Conard, H.S. 1948. Characteristics and uses of itemanalysis
data. Psychological Monograph : General
and Applied. 62(8): 1-49.
Varma Seema. 2007. Preliminary Item statistics using
point biserial correlation and P values. In:
Educational Data Systems: Morgan Hill, CA.
SCREENING OF THERMO TOLERANT RICE GENOTYPES FOR HEAT
TOLERANCE AT SEEDLING STAGE USING TIR TECHNIQUE
B. ARPITHA SHANKAR*, N.P. ESWARA REDDY AND A. SRIVIDHYA
Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, IFT, ANGRAU, RARS, Tirupati – 517 502, Chittoor Dt., Andhra Pradesh
ABSTRACT
Heat is one of the major factors that considerably limit rice production. Here we report a novel temperature induction
response (TIR) technique which was standardized for Rice crop. By adapting TIR technique 74 genotypes were screened for
thermo tolerance. Out of 74 genotypes, 14 genotypes exhibited thermo tolerance due to induced high temperature. These genotypes
have intrinsic heat tolerance and they can be explored as donor source in breeding program aimed for global warming.
KEYWORDS: Thermo tolerance, lethal temperature, sub – lethal temperature, rice genotypes, seedling survival.
INTRODUCTION
Rice is the most important staple food around the
world. India is the second largest producer of Rice. Rice
occupied an area of about 43.86 million ha with
production of 11,267 million tons during 2015-16. Rice
is important kharif and rabi crop. Due to increasing
temperatures by Global warming, plants are prone for
recurrent heat and drought stresses which affect the crop
growth and yield. Plants adopt to high temperature stress
by inherent basal level tolerance as well as acquired
tolerance to severe temperature stress. Acquired thermo
tolerance is quite rapid and has been shown to be induced
during cell acclimation to moderately high temperature
periods (Larkindale et al., 2005; Massie et al.,2003).
Temperature affects a broad spectrum of cellular
components and metabolism, and temperature extremes
impose stresses of variable severity that depend on the
rate of temperature change, intensity, and duration. The
ability to withstand and to acclimate to supra-optimal
temperatures results from both prevention of heat damage
and repair of heat-sensitive components (Sung et al.,
2003; Senthil Kumar et al., 2007). Seedlings exposed to
a sub lethal temperature prior to challenge with severe
temperature have better growth recovery than those
seedlings challenged directly to severe temperature stress.
The global rise in temperature will also increase the
severity of other environmental stresses such as floods
and drought. The variation in rainfall will lead to more
frequent floods and droughts (Yildiz and Terzi, 2008)
which are the most important constraints for deep water
and aerobic cropping systems, respectively. Both these
extreme conditions (drought and flood), if exceed certain
critical period, will have substantial consequences on rice
and may lead to complete failure of the rice crop when
occur at sensitive stages either in the form of water
shortage or excessive submergence. And thus, the
changing climate may enforce a shift in the cropping
pattern in most parts of the world most probably making
rice the most suitable choice for areas with increased
water availability but becoming less appropriate for
farmers in areas with decreased wetness. So there is a
need to adopt a multi-faceted approach while studying
the impact of high-temperature stress, also focusing on
other environmental stresses, which may be equally
detrimental for rice productivity. Acquired tolerance for
a specific abiotic stress has been shown to give cross
protection for other stresses such as salinity, chilling
temperatures, and drought. Therefore, evaluating the relative
performance of rice genotypes for high temperature
tolerance using TIR technique is the main objective.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental Details and Treatments
Experimental Details:
The experiment was conducted at Phenotyping
laboratory, Institute of Frontier Technology, Regional
Agricultural Research Station, Tirupati, using the
standardized TIR (Temperature Induction Response)
protocol.Highly thermo tolerant rice genotypes were screened
from 74 rice germplasm obtained from Nellore, Marteru
, some land races and African lines (Nerica) including
proven varieties for heat tolerance such as N22, Dular
and Nipponbare which were used as check genotypes.
This approach of TIR involves first the identification of
challenging temperature and induction temperature and
later standardizing them before being used for screening
germplasm for intrinsic tolerance. Phenotyping of rice
genotypes for thermo tolerance using TIR technique was
established in this laboratory (Sudhakar et al., 2012) and
same protocol is used in this study.
Treatments:
Rice seeds were washed with distilled water 2- 3
times and were kept for germination at room temperature.
After 42 hours, seedlings which have attained 0.5 cm
uniform size were selected and sown in aluminum trays
containing blotter paper wetted with water. These trays
with seedlings were subjected to sub-lethal temperatures
(gradual temperature increasing for every half an hour
from 38°C to 55°C for 4 hours in the environmental
chamber – ‘LABLINE’ –(Humididty Controlled Oven).
Later these seedlings were exposed to lethal temperatures
(55ÚC) (induced) for 2 hours. Another sub set of seedlings
were exposed directly to lethal temperatures (non
induced). Induced and non induced rice seedlings were
allowed to recover at room temperature for one week. A
control tray was maintained at room temperature, without
exposing to sub-lethal and lethal temperatures.
The following parameters were recorded from the
seedlings:
a) Per cent seedling survival =
Number of seedlings survived at the end of recovery
100
Total number of seedlings sown in the tray

b) Per cent reduction in root growth =
Actual root growth of treated seedlings
100
Actual root growth of control seedlings – Actual root growth of control seedlings

c) Per cent reduction in shoot growth =
Actual shoot growth of control seedlings – Actual shoot growth of treated seedlings 100
Actual shoot growth of control seedlings

RESULTS
Using this technique it was proved that sufficient
genetic variability was present among rice genotypes for
high temperature tolerance. The genotypes showed
significant genetic variability for per cent survival of
seedlings, per cent reduction in root and shoot growth
respectively. The per cent survival of seedlings varied
from 0 to 100 per cent. Among the 74 rice genotypes
screened 14 (FR 13A, Swarna Sub 1A, NLR3238,
MTU1001, Jagannadh, MTU1061, Konark, Vajram,
Satya,Minghui, VL Dhan16, BPT1235, JGL3855,
Basmathi386) genotypes showed highest thermo tolerance
in terms of 80-100 per cent seedlings survival and no or
very little reduction in root and shoot growth. Of these,
two genotypes namely FR13A, and SwarnaSub1A were
out performed the highly tolerant check Dular in the study
both for RRL (Relative Root Length) (62.53% and
47.56%) and RSL (Relative Shoot Length) (106.20% and
40.74%), respectively. However, the other two checks
N22 and Nipponbare showed 100% survival, the growth
performance was poor over control. The genotypes
NLR3238, MTU1001, Jagannadh, MTU1061 and Konark
also showed better performance over Dular.
DISCUSSION
These results are in conformity with several studies,
which showed that acclimated plants survive upon
exposure to a severe stress, which otherwise could be
lethal and is considered to be as thermo tolerance
(Srikanth Babu et al., 2002). Results of this study
indicated that the effect of TIR on other genotypes
revealed variable results. Such acquired tolerance was
variably recorded in other rice genotypes, where either
survival of seedlings was affected or root growth alone
was affected or only shoot growth was affected. This
technique of exposing young seedlings to sub-lethal and
lethal temperature has been validated in many crop species
(Senthil Kumar et al., 2007). This novel temperature
induction response technique has been demonstrated to
reveal genetic variability in intrinsic stress tolerance at
cellular level. The present study also revealed that the
Thermo Induced Response (TIR) technique can very well
be used in rice crop.
CONCLUSION
The above results suggest that the TIR technique is
a powerful and constructive technique to identify genetic
variability in high temperature tolerance in rice within a
short period of time and it is suitable for screening a large
number of genotypes. The identified 14 genotypes of rice
can be used as donor source for developing high
temperature tolerant rice genotypes to resist global rise
temperature.
PLANTHOPPER FUNA ASSOCIATED WITH MAIZE AND SORGHUM
CROP-ECOSYSTEMS FROM COSTAL ANDHRA PRADESH
K. SIVA HARI BRAHMA AND M.S.V. CHALAM*
Department of Entomology, S.V. Agricultural College, ANGRAU, Tirupati – 517 502, Chittoor Dt., Andhra Pradesh
ABSTRACT
Nine planthopper species viz., Cemus sp.; Euidella sp.; Peregrinus maidis (Ashmead); Perkinsiella sp.;
Perkinsiella sinensis Kirkaldy; Sardia rostrata (Melichar); Sogatella kolophon (Kirkaldy) Sogatella vibix
(Haupt) and Tagosodes pusanus (Distant) were reported from maize and sorghum crop-eco systems of costal
Andhra Pradesh. The above species were identified and described. An illustrated key along with diagnostic
taxonomic characters were provided for easy identification of the planthoppers associated with maize and
sorghum crop eco-systems from coastal Andhra Pradesh.
KEYWORDS: Hemiptera, planthoppers, Delphacidae, maize and sorghum.
INTRODUCTION
Planthoppers belong to the super family Fulgoroidea
in Fulgoromorpha of Auchenorrhynchous–Hemiptera
comprising 20 families. Delphacidae is the largest family
of planthoppers belonging to the super family Fulgoroidea
of the Order Hemiptera and is represented by 2000
nominal species described under 280 genera (O’Brien and
Wilson, 1985). The primary distinguishing character of
the family Delphacidae is the presence of a mobile spur
at the tip of tibia III. Delphacids are grass feeders and
devastating pests on major agricultural crops viz., rice,
sugarcane, maize, sorghum and other cereals (Wilson and
O’Brien 1987). Planthoppers damage plants directly by
feeding which cause a characteristic yellowing of tissue
known as “hopper burn” and in addition planthoppers
also act as vectors for plant viral disease viz., rice grassy
stunt virus (Nilaparvata lugens (Stal), N. bakeri (Muir)
and N. muiri (China)) (Ou, 1985 and Hibino, 1989), rice
ragged stunt virus (N. lugens) and N. bakeri), rice stripe
and black-streaked dwarf virus (Laodelphax striatellus
(Fallen) and Terthron albovittatum (Matsumura)), hoja
blanca virus (Tagosodes oryzicolus (Muir) (Nault and
Ammar, 1989), sugarcane yellow leaf syndrome
(Saccharosydne saccharivora (Westwood)), Fiji disease
virus (Perkinsiella saccharicida (Kirkaldy), Perkinsiella
sinensis (Distant) and P. vastatrix (Kirkaldy)) (Wilson,
2005), maize rough dwarf virus (Sogatella vibix (Haupt)),
maize mosaic, maize sterile stunt, maize stripe virus
(Peregrinus maidis (Ashmead)), finger millet mosaic
virus (P. maidis), Brazilian wheat spike disease (Sogatella
kolophon (Kirkaldy)) (Wilson, 2005) etc.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Planthopper specimens were collected from different
Agro-climatic zones of coastal Andhra Pradesh by sweep
netting in maize and sorghum crop-ecosystems. About
10-15 to and fro net sweepings were taken each time and
planthoppers collected were aspirated from the net into a
glass tube and killed with a cotton swab wetted with a
few drops of ethyl acetate. The killed specimens were
transferred to homeopathic vials, labelled, brought to the
laboratory and dried in a hot air oven at 45-50°C, for
about 5 to 6 hours. For mounting and preparing slides of
genitalia the procedure suggested by Knight (1965) was
followed. For describing the different body parts the
terminology suggested by O’Brien and Wilson (1985) was
followed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
During the present studies, from maize and sorghum
crop ecosystems of coastal Andhra Pradesh, the following
planthopper fauna were collected, identified and
described to facilitate easy identification by economic
entomologists.S. No. Crop eco-system Name of the Planthopper Family
1 Maize and Sorghum Cemus sp. Delphacidae
2 Euidella sp. Delphacidae
3 Peregrinus maidis (Ashmead) Delphacidae
4 Perkinsiella sp Delphacidae
5 Perkinsiella sinensis Kirkaldy Delphacidae
6 Sardia rostrata (Melichar) Delphacidae
7 Sogatella kolophon (Kirkaldy) Delphacidae
8 Sogatella vibix (Haupt) Delphacidae
9 Tagosodes pusanus (Distant) Delphacidae
For those species which were not studied here,
literature or a Taxonomist working on the planthoppers
may be consulted. The key for identification of the
planthoppers associate with maize and sorghum crop
ecosystems of coastal Andhra Pradesh is given here under.
1. Vertex and mesonotum without a distinct pale
yellow or orange white stripe extending from the
head. Aedeagus more or less straight, tubular or
may be long and narrow definitely not twisted …2
— Vertex and mesonotum with a distinct pale yellow
or orange or white stripe extending from the head.
Aedeagus twisted, tapering to apex with two rows
of small teeth …………………………………..……6
2. Aedeagus narrow and long whip like with or
without lateral projections on long aedeagal shaft
…………………………….7
— Aedeagus shot and stout, tubular without any lateral
projections…………………………….3
3. Aedeagus tubular with a few small teeth like
projections subapically. Aedeagus basally wider,
gradually narrowed and tubular; two to three spines
are there subapically, gonopore apical; genital styles
relatively flattened, trapezoidal, distally and
shallowly bifurcated (Fig. 22-23)
…………….Tagosodes pusanus
— Aedeagus tubular but definitely without small teeth
like lateral projections …………………4
4. Vertex narrow, elongated between larger compound
eyes; tegmina dark brown in colour with
pterostigma; aedeagus more or less straight, tubular
with subapical serrations; genital styles relatively
short, broader medially with a deep sinuation along
the inner margin; number of spines are scattered in
the middle portion of the style (Fig. 16-17)
………………………………………..Sardia rostrata
Frons with conspicuous raised pits on either side
of the median carina; tegmina granulate along the
veins and fuscus markings can be observed on head
and vertex………………………………………..5
5. Frons with conspicuous raised pits on either side
of the median carina; tegmina granulate along the
veins and fuscus apically; aedeagus long, slightly
decurved with long flagellum arising at apex, dorsal
margin with one or two processes; genital styles
broader basally, gradually narrowed apically with
spines (Fig. 1-2)..………Cemus sp.
— Frons with conspicuous raised pits on either side
of the median carina Vertex and mesonotum dark
brown without characteristic cream coloured band
on pronotum. Aedeagus flattened, curved with a
pair of long unequal subapical processes; genital
style L- shaped (Fig. 3-6) ………………Euidella sp.
6. Face with frons and clypeus pale yellowish brown
in colour, but genae dark brown in colour; the genital
styles have the outer process of apical bifurcation
dilating from the base of middle then tapering to
apex with dorsal margin forming a blunt angle;
diaphragm more or less ‘U’ shaped (Fig 20-21)
…………Sogatella vibix
— Face with frons, clypeus, genae entirely pale
yellowish in colour; genital styles relatively short,
broad, flattened, deeply bifurcated distally and
anterior process of the apical bifurcation strongly
produced tapering to apex, not distinctly dilated in
the middle part, inner process very short; inner edge
of the diaphragm rectangular (Fig. 18-19)
…………………………………………. Sogatella kolophon
7. Brown coloured insects. Aedeagus elongated,
curved laterally, C shaped with a pair of process
apically. Pygofer with two spines on vertical
margin. Genital styles broader basally narrowed
apically more or less foot shaped. Apical portion
of styles is with a small tooth like process (Fig. 10-
12)………………………………………… Perkinsiella sp.
— Light yellow-brown to yellow-orange coulred
insects. Aedeagus definitely not curved and is linear
in shape ending with a sharp point ……………………8
8. Light yellow-brown coloured insects. Pygofer slightly
oblong to rounded; parameres small, bases sunken
into deeply concave medioventral area, parallel
basally, anal style short and relatively small.
Aedeagus long narrow and whip like with processes
sub apically (Fig. 7-9) …………….Perigrinus maidis
— Brownish black coloured insects. Pygofer with a
strong lateral projection. Aedeagus tubular, slightly
curved with a pair of process in the middle and
another process subapically. Aedeagus resembles
an arrow. Genital style foot shaped, narrow in the
beginning and very wide at the apex (Fig. 13-15)
……………Perkinsiella sinensis
The most brief and important taxonomic and
morphological characters of the above keyed species were
provided here under for confirmation of identifications.
Cemus sp: Vertex, pronotum reddish black with
cream coloured carinae. The forewings with blackish dots
all along the veins and fuscous maculae apically. Genae
reddish black in colour with cream coloured pits.
Hemielytra with characteristic black dots along veins,
fuscous streaks and with a distinct pterostigma. Pygofer
short dorsally, long and strongly convex ventrally,
posterior opening relatively small, longer than broad. Anal
segment collar like with a pair of slender processes
directed ventrally. Diaphragm long dorsoventrally, with
dorsal margin concave, deeply incised medially,
medioventral process short, broader than long, quadarate.
Aedeagus long, slightly decurved, with a long flagellum
arising at apex, dorsal margin with one or two processes.
Euidella sp.: Eyes reddish brown. Vertex, pronotum
and mesonotum tinged with orange to yellowish markings.
Frons, genae, clypeus, antennae and legs yellowish brown.
Pygofer ovoid, medioventral margin with three equally
sized and long thin spines. Aedeagus flattened with long
unequal flagellar appendages. Genital styles long and Lshaped.
Peregrinus maidis (Ashmead): Light yellow-brown
to yellow-orange mesonotum with a pair of orange
longitudinal bands between the white median and yellowbrown
lateral carina. Frons, clypeus and genae yellowish
brown. Head narrower than pronotum. Vertex truncate
anteriorly, wider than long basally, clypeus tricarinate
similar to frons. First segment of antennae shorter than
second, apex with black ring. Transparent ungranulated
wings which are brown on apical one-third portion with
a pterostigma. Abdomen including pygofer dark brown
to dark reddish brown. Pygofer slightly oblong to rounded.
Style short and relatively small. Aedeagus long, narrow
and whip like with sub apical process.
Sardia rostrata (Melichar): The colouration of
vertex, thorax and tegmina is dark brown with black
fuscous markings. The clypeus is black in colour and
gradually narrows apically. Genae black in colour.
Forewings are dark brown with pterostigma and fuscus
apically. Pygofer broadly rounded, posterior opening
longer dorsoventrally. Aedeagus more or less straight,
tubular with subapical serration, gonopore apical. Genital
styles relatively short, broader medially with a deep
sinuation along the inner margin with number of spines
scattered in the middle portion of the style
Perkinsiella sp.: Head broad with a broad mediolongitudinal,
yellow to white band running from vertex
to mesonotum. Wings are brownish. Scutellum yellow in
colour. Vertex slightly projected in front of eyes.
Mediolateral carinae raised along lateral carinae.
Antennae large, reaching apex of clypeus, first segment
rather triangular (broader at apex than at base). Wings
are brownish, veins are granulate and pterostigma present.
Spurs on hind legs are relatively small, thin with many
minute teeth along the hind margin. Aedeagus elongated,
curved with a pair of process subapically. Pygofer with
two spines on vertical margin. Genital styles broader
basally narrowed, apically more or less foot shaped.
Diaphragm deeply sinuated in the middle.
Perkinsiella sinensis (Kirkaldy): Brownish black
in colour with vertex, pronotum and scutellum yellowish.
Vertex is broader and more or less equal to its length.
Wings are brownish in colour, veins are granulate and
pterostigma present. Legs simple, hind basitarsus as long
as the other two tarsal segments put together; spurs
relatively small, thin with many minute teeth along the
hind margin. Anal tube processes paired and shorter.
Aedeagus tubular, slightly curved with a pair of process
in the middle and another process subapically. Genital
style foot shaped. Aedeagus resembles an arrow.
Sogatella kolophon (Kirkaldy): Vertex, pronotum
and mesonotum yellowish-white to pale stramineous.
Lateral mesonotum orange brown. Face with frons,
clypeus and genae entirely pale yellowish brown in colour.
Clypeus and genae are light brown with yellow carinae.
Post tibial spur with 19-21 teeth. Pygofer more or less
round, posterior opening slightly longer dorsoventrally
than broad. Anal segment, collar like with a pair of stout
spine like processes directed ventrally up to the length of
anal tube. Aedeagus twisted, tubular, usually sinuate with
two rows of teeth and apical gonopore. Inner edge of
diaphragm rectangular. Genital styles relatively short,
broad, flattened, deeply bifurcated distally and anterior
process of the apical bifurcation and tapering towards
apex.
Sogatella vibix (Haupt): Vertex yellowish white.
Mid lateral carinae are black in colour. Forewings without
pterostigma and are subtransparent. First segment of hind
tarsus distinctly longer than the length of second and third
segments put together, with thin and foliaceous tibial spur.
Pygofer more or less round, posterior opening slightly
longer dorsoventrally than broad. Anal segment
moderately short, collar like with a pair of moderately
long, slender stout spine like process directed ventrally.
Aedeagus twisted, tubular and gonopore apical. The
genital styles are apically bifurcated.
Tagosodes pusanus (Distant): A white band present
along the middle line from the anterior cell of vertex to
the caudal tip of the mesonotum. The lateral sides of pro
and mesonotum brown or black in colour. Frons and genae
are black in colour. Clypeus light brown in colour.
Hemielytra subtransparent, longer than wide with of dark
markings and pterostigma. Post tibial spur thin, foliaceous
and with minute teeth marginally. Pygofer moderately
long, posterior opening slightly longer dorsoventrally than
broad. A pair of short spine like processes directed
ventrally are present on the collar like anal segment.
Aedeagus tubular, wider basally, gradually narrowed with
2-3 spines which are sub apical. Gonopore apical. Genital
styles relatively flattened, trapezoidal distally and
shallowly bifurcated.
Wilson and Claridge (1991) described 28 species of
planthoppers belonging to the families viz., Delphacidae,
Lophopidae, Meenoplidae and Cixiidae of Fulgoridae on
rice and sugarcane. Mustaque and Akbar (1998) reported
Pyrilla aberrans on sugarcane, rice, maize and sorghum.
Rao and Chalam (2007) reported 23 delphacid
planthoppers in India from rice and sugarcane ecosystems.
Shashank (2009) reported 5 delphacid planthoppers viz.,
Cemus sp., Nilaparvata lugens, Sogatella furcifera, Sardia
rostrata, and Tagosodes pusanus found associated with
different rice and sugarcane crop eco-systems from
Karnataka. In the present studies nine planthopper species
belonging to family Delphacidae from maize and sorghum
crop eco systems were collected, identified, described and
illustrated for easy and quick identification. An
identification key well supported with illustrations was
also provided which will be useful aid to identify the
planthoppers by research and extension workers. The
accurate identification of planthopper fauna associated
with a particular agro-ecosystem is very much needed
along with their identification key to formulate integrated
management strategies whenever they attain pest status.
LITERATURE CITED
Hibino, H. 1989. Insect-borne viruses of rice. In, Harris ,
K.F. (ed.) Advances in Disease Vector Research.
6: 209-241.
Knight, W.J. 1965. Techniques for use in the identification
of leafhoppers (Homoptera: Cicadellidae).
Entomologist’s Gazette. 16: 129-136.
Mustaque Shakila and Akbar Shamshad, 1998. Genus
Pyrilla (Fulgoroidea: Homoptera) from Pakistan and
a study in to phonetic affinities of its species.
Pakistan Journal of Zoology. 30(3): 255-264.
Nault, L.R and Ammar, E.D. 1989. Leafhopper and
planthopper transmission of plant viruses. Annual
Review of Entomology. 34: 503-527.
O’Brien, L.B and Wilson, S.W. 1985. Planthopper
Systematics and External Morphology. In, Nault, L.R
and Rodriguez, J.G. (eds.) The Leafhoppers and
Planthoppers. John Wiley and sons, New York. 61-
102.
Ou, S.H. 1985. Rice Diseases. 2nd ed. CAB International
Mycological Institute, UK 1-380.
Rao, V.R.S and Chalam, M.S.V. 2007. Biodiversity of
planthopper fauna (Delphacidae: Hemiptera)
associated with rice and sugarcane crop-ecosystems
in South India. Hexapoda. 14(2): 129-141.
Shashank, P.R. 2009. Taxonomic studies on leafhopper
and planthopper fauna associated with rice
ecosystem and their management. M.Sc. (Ag) Thesis,
submitted to Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural
University, Hyderabad.
Wilson, S.W and O’ Brien, L.B. 1987. A Survey of
Planthopper Pests of Economically Important Plants
(Homoptera: Fulgoroidea) In, Proceedings of the
IInd International workshop on leafhoppers and
planthoppers of economic importance. Wilson M R
and Nault L R (eds.) 368 pp London 23rd July – 1st
August 1987, Commonwealth Institute of
Entomology, 56 Queen’s Gate, London. 343-360.
Wilson, S.W. 2005. Keys to the families of
Fulgoromorpha with emphasis on planthoppers of
potential economic importance in the Southeastern
United States (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha).
Department of Biology, Central Missuori State
University, Warrensburg. Florida Entomologist.
88(4): 464-481.
Wilson, M.R and Claridge, M.F. 1991. Hand Book for
the Identification of Leafhoppers and Planthoppers
of Rice. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux
International, London, UK. 142.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE KNOWLEDGE LEVEL OF THE TOMATO GROWERS IN
CHITTOOR DISTRICT OF ANDHRA PRADESH
K. MADHURI*, V. SAILAJA, P.V. SATHYAGOPAL, D. SUBRAMANYAM AND S.V. PRASAD
Department of Agricultural Extension, S.V. Agricultural College, ANGRAU, Tirupati-517 502, Chittoor Dt., Andhra Pradesh
ABSTRACT
The present investigation was carried out in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh state during 2016-17 to assess the various
factors influencing the knowledge level of tomato growers. A total of 120 respondents were selected by following simple random
sampling. The results of the study revealed that 61.67 per cent of the farmers were having medium knowledge levels followed by
low (24.17%) and high (14.16%) levels. The profile characteristics viz., education, farm size, annual income, extension contact,
mass media exposure, scientific orientation, risk orientation, management orientation, innovativeness and achievement motivation
were found positively significant with the knowledge level of respondents regarding tomato cultivation. Further, all the
selected 14 independent variables put together explained about 66.50 per cent variation in the level of knowledge of tomato
growers.
KEYWORDS: Knowledge level, Tomato cultivation, Tomato growers.
INTRODUCTION
Tomato is well known and very popular vegetable
grown successfully throughout India. Tomato ranks third
in priority after potato and onion in India but ranks second
after potato in the world. Andhra Pradesh is producing
about 36 per cent of tomatoes in the country and is the
leading producer of tomato involving a production of
1473.5 thousand metric tones from an area of 54.2
thousand hectares with productivity of 27.2 Mt/ha
(Anonymous, 2016). Tomato is an important vegetable
crop grown in Chittoor District.
Knowledge is an indispensible criterion for the
adoption of any innovation, as it enables the farmers to
understand completely and clearly the recommended
cultivation practices. The rate of adoption of an innovation
is directly linked with level of knowledge of the
respondents. Hence, it was felt necessary to know the
knowledge level of the respondents on recommended
cultivation practices. Hence, the present study was carried
out with an objective to find out the personal socioeconomic
and psychological factors influencing the
knowledge level of tomato growers about the production
aspects of tomato.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was carried out during 2016-17
in Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh. Chittoor district
of Andhra Pradesh was purposively selected as tomato is
extensively cultivated in the district. Out of 66 mandals
of Chittoor district, three mandals viz., Kurabalakota,
Molakalacheruvu and Gurramkonda were purposively
selected based on the highest area under tomato
cultivation. Four villages from each Mandal were selected
proportionally or randomly for the study. From each
selected village ten farmers were selected by following
simple random sampling method. Thus, a total number
of 120 respondents were selected for the study.
Further, in order to study the combined effect of all
the independent variables in explaining variation in
knowledge level of the tomato growers on recommended
cultivation practices, Multiple Linear Regression (MLR)
analysis was carried out. The computed co-efficient of
determination (R2) value and partial regression coefficient
(b) The R2
and ‘b’ values were tested statistically
for their significance.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Overall knowledge level of tomato growers on
recommended cultivation practices
After assessing the knowledge level, the respondents
were categorized into three groups viz., low, medium and
high by using mean and standard deviation and the results
were presented in Table 1.
The results in the Table 1 revealed that 61.67 per
cent of the participant farmers were having medium level
of knowledge, followed by low (24.17%) and high
(14.16%) levels of knowledge.
The probable reason for this trend might be that
medium levels of mass media exposure, extension contact,
scientific orientation and low marketing facilities and
credit orientation of majority of the respondents might
be the factors restrict the knowledge level of farmers to
medium level inspite of their good level of education.
Diversion of attention to subsidiary occupations might
also be reducing their opportunities to acquire knowledge.
Extension agencies must concentrate on encouraging
young and middle aged farmers also indulging in farming
activities, taking all farmers to research stations and
demonstration plots, imparting them frequent trainings
and inspiring them to have more extension contact and
mass media exposure so that farmers will improve their
knowledge about recommended package of practices.
Similar findings were reported by Roy and Rekha (2012).
Correlation analysis between the selected profile
characteristics and the level of knowledge of tomato
growers on recommended tomato cultivation practices
The data presented in the Table 2 clearly indicates
that the characteristics such as education, farm size,
annual income, extension contact, mass media exposure,
scientific orientation, risk orientation, management
orientation, innovativeness and achievement orientation
found to have positive and significant relationship with
knowledge level of tomato growers. Whereas age and
farming experience found to have negative and significant
relationship with the knowledge level of tomato growers.
Marketing facilities and credit orientation found to have
negative and non-significant relationship with knowledge
level of tomato growers.
A perusal of data indicated that education of the
respondents had a positive and significant relationship
with their knowledge level. The probable reason for this
type may be due to the fact that educated farmers with
more information seeking habits and better access to farm
information sources such as farm magazines, farm
bulletins, books on agriculture etc., and possess better
capacity to grasp information and analyse and interpret
them in proper ways. Educated people have more
exposure to extension agencies, scientists and research
stations etc., This finding was in agreement with the
findings of Ramu (2005).
Farm size had a positive and significant relationship
with the knowledge level of tomato growers. This might
be due to the fact that large farms with availability of
sufficient resources allow farmers to try new innovations
for which they will seek more information from various
sources leading to increase in the knowledge level
Sivanandhan (2002).
The possible reason for the positive and significant
relationship between annual income and knowledge level
of the tomato growers was the farmers with higher income
are highly accessible to the new technologies and gather
maximum information about the latest cultivation practices.
There was a positive and significant relationship
between extension contact and knowleato growers. The
probable reason attributed for this type of relation might
be due to the fact that extension agencies are the more
accessible sources of information for the respondents.
Hence, respondents who have got more contact with
extension agencies will have more knowledge about the
tomato cultivation. This trend was supported by Obaiah
(2004).
The data indicated that there was a positive
significant relationship between mass media exposure and
knowledge level of the tomato growers. The probable
reason for this might be due to the fact that mass media
exposure enhances the farmer’s knowledge as these serve
as the accelerators for diffusion of agricultural
innovations. Farmers who are in constant touch with mass
media are likely to have better knowledge. Similar
findings were observed by Roy et al. (2007).
There was a positive and significant relationship
between scientific orientation and knowledge level of the
tomato growers. The probable reason attributed for this
type of relation might be due to the fact that the farmers
with good scientific orientation will prefer to know about
the innovative technologies. This result were in line with
the conclusions of Kumar (2004).
The results indicated that there was a positive and
significant relationship between risk orientation and
knowledge level of the tomato growers. The probable
reason for this might be due to the fact that a farmer who
wants to take risk in cultivating crops will try to develop
his knowledge with regard to the crop and its cultivation
practices. Similar result was observed by Kumar (2002).
Management orientation had a positive and
significant relationship with the knowledge level of
tomato growers. This might be due to the fact that farmers
being good in management orientation with regard to
planning, production and marketing will try to gather
maximum information about the cultivation and
marketing aspects of the crop. This naturally leads to
increased level of knowledge. Similar observations were
made by Kumar (2002).
The possible reason for the positive and significant
relationship between innovativeness and knowledge level
of the tomato growers was that an individual with high
innovativeness desires to seek changes in farming by
adopting the latest technologies. This result was in
accordance with the results of Gopinath (2005)
The data indicated that there was a positive and
significant relationship between achievement motivation
and knowledge level of the tomato growers. The probable
reason for this might be due to the fact that achievement
motivation forces an individual to work constantly
towards reaching a goal, which he carves for himself and
in this process he acquires great amount of knowledge.
This result has support from the conclusions of Kumar
(2004).
Age had a negative and significant relationship with
the knowledge level of tomato growers. This might be
due to the fact that old age farmers having poor contacts
with extension agents like Mandal horticulture officers,
agricultural extension officers etc..
Farming experience had a negative and significant
relationship with the knowledge level of tomato growers.
This might be due to the fact that large farms with
availability of sufficient resources allow farmers to try
new innovations for which they will seek more
information from various sources leading to increase in
the knowledge level. This result was supported by the
conclusion of Gattu (2001).
The ‘R2’ value of 0.665 depicted that all the selected
fourteen independent variables put together explained
about 66.50 per cent variation in the level of knowledge
of tomato growers about recommended cultivation
practices. The partial regression coefficients presented
in Table 3 further reveals that the independent variables
viz. farm size, extension contact, risk orientation,
management orientation and achievement motivation
were found positively significant. This implied that farm
size, extension contact, risk orientation, management
orientation and achievement motivation contributed to
most of the variation in the knowledge level of tomato
growers.
CONCLUSION
From this study it was concluded that the profile
characteristics viz., education, farm size, annual income,
extension contact, mass media exposure, scientific
orientation, risk orientation, management orientation,
innovativeness and achievement motivation were found
to be positively significant with the knowledge level of
respondents regarding tomato cultivation. Hence, target
oriented training programmes have to be formulated to
enhance the knowledge level of tomato growers