Y.M. SWATHI*, M. SRINIVASA REDDY, G. PRABHAKARA REDDY, P. KAVITHA AND
A. PRATAP KUMAR REDDY
Department of Agronomy, S.V. Agricultural College, ANGRAU, Tirupati-517 502, Chittoor Dt., A.P.

ABSTRACT

A field experiment was conducted during late kharif, 2016-17 at Agricultural College Farm, Mahanandi to study the effects
of plant density, planting patterns and mulching techniques on, yield and economics of irrigated redgram. The results revealed
that spacing of 120/60 cm × 20 cm as paired rows with plastic mulch in pairs recorded significantly higher seed yield (2,302 kg ha-1) of
irrigated redgram. The net returns ( 69,014 ha-1) and B : C (3.30) ratio were realized with paired row spacing of 90/30 cm × 20 cm.
KEYWORDS: Drip system, paired row, plastic mulching, redgram and seed yield.

INTRODUCTION

The importance of pulses is much more in country like India, where majority of the people are vegetarian. Redgram (Cajanus cajan (L) Millsp.) is the fifth
prominent pulses crop in the world and second most
important grain legume of India after chickpea. It is
mainly known as subsistence crop in the tropics and subtropics
of India, Africa and South-East Asia. In India,
redgram is cultivated in 3.90 million hectares, out of
which around 4.4 percent under irrigation. Production of
redgram is 3.17 million tones with productivity of 813
kg ha-1. Prakasham, Guntur and Kurnool are the major
districts of Andhra Pradesh state in which redgram crop
is grown on large area. However, there is large potential
of increasing area under redgram in late kharif, due to
the availability of improved high yielding varieties and
higher market price of pulses. The yield potential of
redgram can be realized only through efficient utilization
of solar radiation and mitigating terminal drought for
which canopy size and shape claim a paramount
importance among the agronomic practices. Optimal plant
population is a non-monetary input that appears to be the
most formidable barrier in realizing higher productivity
under even irrigated conditions. There is a need to
evaluate the advanced practices of mulching, planting
pattern and micro irrigation practices to increase the
productivity and profitability of redgram.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The field experiment was conducted during late
kharif 2016-17 at Agricultural College Farm, Mahanandi.
The experimental soil was sandy loam in texture, neutral
in reaction (pH 7.2), low in organic carbon (0.3 per cent),
available nitrogen (156 kg ha-1), high in available
phosphorus (28 kg ha-1) and potassium (856 kg ha-1). The
experiment was laid out in randomized block design with
nine treatments and three replications. The treatments
comprised of sowing with 120 cm × 20 cm spacing (T1),
sowing with 90 cm × 20 cm spacing (T2), sowing with 60
cm × 20 cm spacing (T3), sowing with spacing of 180/
60cm × 20 cm as paired rows (T4), sowing with spacing
of 120/60 cm × 20 cm as paired rows (T5), sowing with
spacing of 90/30 cm × 20 cm as paired rows (T6), sowing
with spacing of 180/60 cm × 20 cm as paired rows with
plastic mulch in pairs (T7), sowing with spacing of 120/
60 cm × 20 cm as paired rows with plastic mulch in pairs
(T8) and sowing with spacing of 90/30 cm ×20 cm as
paired rows with plastic mulch in pairs (T9). Surface drip
irrigation system with 16 mm integral dripper lines laid
out on the ground surface and emitters spaced at 0.60 m
apart delivering 41 hr-1 giving an application rate
6.6 mm h-1 for all the plots. The black-sliver LDPE sheet
of 25 µ was used in the study for the respective treatments
and the sheet was spread within paired rows. To compute
the total cost of cultivation of redgram under drip,
discounted cost of the irrigation system at ` 12,467 was
considered taking the average life span of the system as
5 years with seasons (kharif and rabi). The cost of plastic
mulch film and its laying charges was computed for
respective treatments.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The higher seed yield of irrigated redgram was
recorded at spacing of 120/60 cm × 20 cm as paired row
with plastic mulch in pairs (2,302 kg ha-1) which was
comparable with a spacing of 180/60 cm × 20 cm as paired
row with plastic mulch in pairs (2,210 kg ha-1), spacing
of 90/30 cm × 20 cm as paired rows with plastic mulch in
pairs (2,104 kg ha-1) and was superior over rest of
treatments. This might be due to higher yield attributing
characters, maximum uptake of NPK, which was
benefited because of mulch and drip irrigation that altered
the microclimate. The increase in yield attributes under
different treatments of mulch might be due to favorable
environment and these results are in accordance with
those reported by Gajera et al. (1998). Lowest seed yield
was recorded with spacing of 120 cm × 20 cm (1,548 kg
ha-1) due to poor growth and yield components of redgram.
Gross and net returns as well as benefit cost ratio
were altered to a noticeable extent by drip system and
plastic mulch film. An annualized cost of drip at ` 12,476,
plastic mulch at ` 180 kg-1 and its laying charges was
included in the cost of production for irrigated redgram
for the respective treatments. The higher gross returns
(` 1,16,258 ha-1) of irrigated redgram were obtained with
spacing of 120/60 cm × 20 cm as paired rows with plastic
mulch in pairs (T8) (Table 1). The lowest gross returns
(` 78,181 ha-1) were recorded at 120 cm × 20 cm (T1). It
is obvious that realization of higher gross returns was
due to higher seed yield and because of favorable soil
moisture and nutrients facilitating growth and better
translocation of photosynthates from source to sink i.e.,
seed. The economics of plastic mulching revealed that
though initial investment is higher owing to higher input
cost of plastic mulch, adoption of redgram under plastic
mulch is economically feasible as the cost of plastic mulch
is cheaper.
The highest net returns (` 69,014 ha-1) and B:C ratio
(3.30) were recorded at a spacing of 90/30 cm × 20 cm as
paired rows (T6) (Table 1). The increase in net returns
might be due to increased plant population, seed yield
and cost incurred on plastic mulch film which was low
compared to yield advantage. The lowest net returns and
benefit: cost ratio were recorded with spacing of 180/60
cm × 20 cm as paired rows with plastic mulch in pairs
(T7) (` 59,516 ha-1). The results are in agreement with
those reported by Gajera et al. (1998); Kulkarni et al.
(2015) and Patel et al. (2015).
CONCLUSION
The results from present investigation revealed that
paired row is advantageous for improving productivity
and profitability of redgram under drip irrigation with
less cost of production. However, higher initial cost of
the plastic mulch material is the only hindrance in
advocating this technology to the small and marginal
farmers of our country. Appropriate government policies
such as availability of subsidized polythene film as in
the case drip system will go a long way in future for
improving the productivity and profitability of farmers
besides saving the precious water and creating lesser
pressure on ground water resources.
LITERATURE CITED
Gajera, M.S., Ahlawat, R.P.S and Ardeshna, R.B. 1998.
Effect of irrigation schedule, tillage depth and mulch
on growth and yield of winter pigeonpea (Cajanus
cajan (L.) Millsp.). Indian Journal of Agronomy.
43(4): 689-693.
Kulkarni, M.V., Sushil, L., Yogesh, P and Prajapati, D.R.
2015. Influence of planting geometry and mulching
on growth and yield of watermelon under drip
irrigation. Journal of Agricultural Engineering and
Food Technology. 2(1): 22-24.
Patel, A.R., Gohel, T.J., Davara, D.K and Solanki, M.H.
2015. Effect of drip irrigation and mulching on
growth, yield and water use efficiency of
rabipigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.). Trends in
Biosciences. 8(16): 4275-4279.
EFFICACY OF DIFFERENT ORGANIC NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES ON GROWTH AND YIELD OF FINGERMILLET
SWETA SHIKTA MAHAPATRA*, N. SUNITHA, Y. REDDI RAMU AND A. PRASANTHI
Department of Agronomy, S.V. Agricultural College, ANGRAU, Tirupati-517 502, Chittoor Dt., A.P.
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during kharif, 2016 to study the effect of various nutrient management practices on
growth and yield of fingermillet. The experiment was laid down in a randomised block design, replicated thrice with eight
treatments of different combinations of organic sources viz., farm yard manure, biofertilizers (Azospirillum+ PSB), beejamrutha,
jeevamrutha and panchagavya. The results revealed that the growth parameters, yield attributes, grain and straw yields were
found at their best with the application of 100 per cent recommended dose of nutrients through fertilizers i.e. 60-30-30 kg N, P2O5
and K2O ha-1. Among the various organic sources tried, application of 100 per cent N through FYM + seedling treatment with
beejamruta + soil application of jeevamrutha @ 500 l ha-1 just after transplanting and at every 10 days interval up to 15 days
before harvest (T7) was found to be the best organic nutrient management practice.
KEYWORDS: Fingermillet, jeevamrutha, panchagavya, farm yard manure, beejamrutha.
Date of Receipt: 30-05-2017 Date of Acceptance: 23-09-2017
*Corresponding author, E-mail: swetashikta23mahapatra@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Fingermillet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.] is the
third most important millet crop in India, next to sorghum
and pearl millet, grown over an area of 1.13 million
hectares with an annual production of 1.98 million tonnes
and a productivity of 1661 kg ha-1. In Andhra Pradesh, it
is cultivated in an area of 44,000 hectares with a
production of 36,000 tonnes having productivity of 1045
kg ha-1 (Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation,
2016).Fingermillet being rich in calcium, iron, protein
with a balanced amino acid profile and lower glycemic
index offers plausible health benefits and thus referred
as a miracle grain. Recently it is re-emerging as a vital
dietary food crop owing to increased public awareness
about its nutritional value and climate resilience crop with
wider adaptability to adverse weather conditions. The
current global scenario is firmly emphasizing the need to
adopt eco-friendly agricultural practices in view of the
growing demand for safe, healthy and nutritious food.The
paucity of adequate qualitative cheaper organic manures
availability is limiting the adoption of inclusive organic
nutrient management. Due to the dearth of scientific data
on the validation of various liquid organic formulations,
it has become a major thrust area of research. Thus, in
order to sustain the crop productivity and for better onfarm
resource utilization, combined use of organic
manures along with liquid organic formulations deserves
priority as a viable alternative. Hence, an experiment was
carried out for estimating the effect of combined
application of various organic sources on the performance
of fingermillet.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The field experiment was conducted during kharif,
2016 at S.V. Agricultural college dryland farm, Tirupati
campus of ANGRAU, on sandy clay loam soil with pH
7.1 having low organic carbon content (0.49%), low
available nitrogen (154 kg ha-1), low available P2O5
(10 kg ha-1) and medium available K2O (166 kg ha-1).
The experiment was laid out in randomized block design
with eight treatments and replicated thrice. The treatments
were T1: control, T2: 100 per cent RDF (60-30-30 kg N,
P2O5 and K2O ha-1), T3: 100 per cent N through farm yard
manure (FYM), T4: 100 per cent N through FYM +
seedling treatment with biofertilizers (Azospirillum +
PSB), T5: seedling treatment with beejamruta + soil
application of jeevamrutha @ 500 l ha-1 just after
transplanting and at every 10 days interval up to 15 days
before harvest, T6: seedling treatment with beejamruta +
foliar application of panchagavya @ 3 per cent foliar spray
just after transplanting and at every 10 days interval up
to 15 days before harvest, T7: T3+ T5, T8: T3+ T6.The test
variety of fingermillet was ‘Vakula’. Fingermillet
seedlings of 21 days old were transplanted @ one seedling
per hill with a spacing of 22.5cm x 10cm. Seedling
treatment was done by root dipping for 30 minutes in
prepared beejamruta solution or biofertilizer slurry
(prepared by mixing the microbial inoculants of
Azospirillum, PSB, FYM and water at 1:1:5:10 ratio) as
per the treatment schedule.The entire dose of P2O5, K2O
and half of the N was applied as basal where as the
remaining quantity of nitrogen was applied as top dressing
at 30 days after transplanting. Application of panchagavya
was done by diluting 3 litres of filtrate from the stock
solution in 100 litres of water and sprayed with high pore
size nozzle on fingermillet crop at ten days interval
starting from the day of transplanting to till 15 days before
harvest. The prepared solution of jeevamruta was diluted
in water (1:10) and applied to soil uniformly covering
the total field area on the day of transplanting and at every
ten days interval until 15 days before harvest. Similarly
jeevamruta was prepared for each application at ten days
interval.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The growth parameters viz., plant height and dry
matter production at harvest, yield attributes viz., number
of productive tillers m-2, ear weight, grain and straw yield
of fingermillet were found to be significantly influenced
by various sources of nutrients (Table 1).
The highest plant height and dry matter production
of fingermillet was noticed with 100 per cent
recommended dose of nutrients through fertilizers (T2),
which was significantly superior to the different organic
sources tested. This might be attributed to the quick
release and availability of nutrients and especially
nitrogen, which is an important constituent of protoplasm
playing a positive role in cell division and elongation
resulting in vigorous crop growth with effective
interception of light and higher rate of photosynthesis.
Dry matter accumulation is the prerequisite for higher
yields, which is an indication of the biosynthetic processes
associated with the crop growth and development.The
next higher values of plant height and leaf area index
were noticed with the application of 100 per cent N
through FYM +seedling treatment with beejamruta + soil
application of jeevamrutha @ 500 l ha-1 just after
transplanting and at every 10 days interval up to 15 days
before harvest(T7).The soil application of jeevamruta
might have accelerated the soil microbial activities, which
might have helped in the continuous mineralization of
applied FYM leading to better availability of nutrients,
particularly nitrogen as well as growth promoting
hormones viz., IAA and GA3in jeevamruta which might
have favored rapid cell division and multiplication leading
enhanced biological efficiency in terms of plant height
and dry matter accumulation. Further, seedling treatment
with beejamruta with cow dung as an integral component
which is rich in several genera of bacteria and fungi that
might have enhanced the availability of soil native
nutrients. The lowest values recorded with control might
be due to non-availability of sufficient quantity of
nutrients to produce even a moderate stature of
fingermillet crop.Similar results were perceived by
Kesarwani (2007), Lakshmipathi (2012) and Kasbe et al.
(2015).
The stature of yield attributes is a complex process
governed by complementary interaction between source
and sink. Thus the favorable effect of adequate quantity
of readily available nutrients with 100 per cent
recommended dose of nutrients through fertilizers (T2) is
evident with higher dry matter accumulation and effective
translocation of photosynthates to the sink, which resulted
in improved stature of yield attributes i.e. number of
productive tillers m-2 and ear weight. Among the organic
sources of nutrients tried, application of 100 per cent N
through FYM + seedling treatment with beejamruta +
soil application of jeevamrutha @ 500 l ha-1 just after
transplanting and at every ten days interval up to 15 days
before harvest(T7) exerted a synergistic effect of FYM,
jeevamruta and beejamruta on the yield attributes of
fingermillet. Jeevamruta, a cow dung based formulation
is a rich source of naturally occurring beneficial
microorganisms, which put forth a direct influence on
production of plant growth promoting hormones viz.,
auxins, gibberlins and cytokinins in addition to the supply
of biologically fixed nitrogen, solubilization of the
insoluble phosphates and better release of potassium into
available pool (Girija et al., 2013). Hence, the regular
soil application of jeevamrutha might have enhanced the
conversion of organically bound nutrients in the soil as
well as FYM to inorganic forms, thereby making them
concurrently available synchronizing with peak period
of crop requirement i.e. panicle initiation, flowering and
grain filling stages. This is in accordance with the results
reported by Kesarwani (2007), Lakshmipathi (2012),
Rathnayake et al. (2013), Nigade et al. (2014) and Kasbe
et al. (2015). The deflated stature of yield attributes
noticed with control might be ascribed to the fact that the
inherent soil fertility status (154-10-166 kg N, P2O5 and
K2O ha-1) was insufficient to meet the crop requirement
for supporting normal growth and development.
The highest grain and straw yields of fingermillet
were recorded with 100 per cent recommended dose of
nutrients through fertilizers (T2). This might be due to
the cumulative effect of elevated growth stature as well
as yield attributes under the condition of adequate nutrient
supply, favoring the production of photosynthates coupled
with better partitioning to the sink. Application of
recommended dose of fertilizers recorded 27.5 per cent
higher grain yield over the next best treatment of 100 per
cent N through FYM +seedling treatment with beejamruta
+ soil application of jeevamrutha @ 500 l ha-1 just after
transplanting and at every ten days interval up to 15 days
before harvest(T7). Supplementation of FYM with
beejamruta and jeevamruta (T7) registered 45.1 per cent
higher yield over 100 per cent N through FYM alone (T3)
where as 53.1 per cent higher grain yield over only
beejamruta and jeevamruta (T5). Further it was noticed
that application of either beejamruta and jeevamruta (1076
kg ha-1) or FYM alone (1135 kg ha-1) has resulted in
comparative yield. Provision of required carbon substrate
through FYM and microorganisms through fermented
liquid organic sources might have maintained a steady
rhizosphere enzymatic and biological activity for the
favorable biochemical reactions, thereby creating
congenial environment for mineralization and continuous
supply of essential macro and micro nutrients. Further,
application of FYM along with jeevamruta might have
enhanced the activity of dehydrogenase, phosphatase and
urease in the soil as reported by Bhoomiraj and
Christopher (2007), Gore (2010) and Lakshmipathi
(2012). Hence, the positive effect of combined application
of FYM, beejamruta and jeevamruta was reflected with
higher grain and straw yields. These results are in
accordance with the findings of Kesarwani (2007),
Lakshmipathi (2012), Rathnayake et al. (2013), Nigade
et al. (2014), Kasbe et al. (2015) and Sahare (2015).
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, the present investigation revealed that
higher grain yield of fingermillet could be realized with
100 per cent recommended dose of nutrients through
fertilizers i.e. 60-30-30 kg N, P2O5 and K2O ha-1. Among
the various organic sources of nutrients tried, 100 per
cent N through FYM + seedling treatment with beejamruta
+ soil application of jeevamrutha @ 500 l ha-1 just after
transplanting and at every ten days interval up to 15 days
before harvest (T7) was proved to be the most promising,
feasible and economically viable organic nutrient
management practice for higher yield, economics of
fingermillet along with maintenance of soil biological
activity and fertility for the sustenance of soil ecology.
LITERATURE CITED
Bhoomiraj, K and Christopher L.A. 2007. Impact of
organic and inorganic sources of nutrients,
panchagavya and botanicals spray on the soil
microbial population and enzyme activity in bhendi
(Abelmoschus esculentus L. Monech). In Kumar, A.
(ed.) Agriculture and Environment. APH Publishing
Corporation, New Delhi.pp: 257-261.
Girija, D., Deepa, K., Xavier, F., Antony, I and Sindhi,
P.R. 2013.Analysis of cow dung microbiota- a
metagenomic approach. Indian Journal of
Biotechnology. 12: 372- 378.
Gore, N.S. 2010. Influence of liquid organic manures on
microbial activity, growth, lycopene content and
yield of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum mill.) in
the sterilized soil. M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, University of
Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, Karnataka.
Kesarwani, A. 2007. Effect of organic nutrient
management practices on the stalk yield and juice
quality of sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolour (L.)
Moench) for ethanol production. M.Sc.(Ag.) Thesis,
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru,
Karnataka.
Kasbe, S.S., Joshi, M., Bhaskar, K.A., Gopinath, K.A and
Kumar, M.K. 2015. Impact of organic manures with
or without mineral fertilizers on soil chemical and
biological properties under tropical conditions.
International Journal of Bio-resource and Stress
management.6 (1): 155-160.
Lakshmipathi, R.N. 2012. Identification of beneficial
microflora in liquid organic manures and biocontrol
formulations and their influence on growth and yield
of finger millet (Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertin) and
field bean (Dolichos lab lab L.). M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis,
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru,
Karnataka.
INFLUENCE OF TILLAGE AND IN-SITU MOISTURE CONSERVATION
PRACTICES ON PRODUCTIVITY OF RAINFED GROUNDNUT (Arachis hypogaea)
G. RAJITHA*, A. MUNEENDRA BABU, G. PRABHAKARA REDDY AND P. SUDHAKAR
Department of Agronomy, S.V. Agricultural College, ANGRAU, Tirupati-517 502, Chittoor Dt., A.P.
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during kharif, 2016-17 at S.V. Agricultural college farm, Tirupati to study the effects of
in-situ moisture conservation techniques on the productivity of rainfed groundnut (Arachis hypogaea). Broad bed and furrow
system were effective in conserving the soil moisture leading to improvement in yield attributes and pod and haulm yields of
groundnut. The highest pod yield of 2056 kg ha-1 was recorded with broad bed and furrow system.
KEYWORDS: Broad bed and furrow system, groundnut, morphological attributes, rainfed, yield.
Date of Receipt: 01-06-2017 Date of Acceptance: 13-09-2017
Soil moisture is the limiting factor for groundnut
(Arachis hypogaea) productivity under rainfed
conditions. Much work has been done and is being
directed towards more sustainable measures for
conserving soil moisture. Promising and potentially
appropriate methods such as contour and graded bunds,
fallowing and mulching have been developed.
Nevertheless, the rate of farmer adoption of these
practices remains notably low and is still insufficient for
conservation of moisture. This suggests the need for much
more simpler methods of moisture conservation with
minimum external input and investment. Prolonged
drought periods are common, especially during moisture
sensitive stages of flowering, pegging and pod
development, leading to lower yields. Keeping in view,
the importance of groundnut crop, which is
predominantly grown during kharif season in Chittoor
district of Andhra Pradesh, the present experiment was
carried on yield attributes and yield of rainfed groundnut
(Arachis hypogaea) as influenced by different moisture
conservation measures.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The field experiment was conducted on sandy loam
soil (Alfisols) during rainy season at Tirupati. The
experimental soil was neutral in reaction (7.5 pH),
medium in organic carbon (0.58 %) and low in available
nitrogen (176 kg ha-1), medium in available phosphorous
(70 kg ha-1) and high in available potassium (304 kg ha-1).
Moisture content at field capacity and permanent wilting
point was 14 and 4 per cent respectively, with bulk density
*Corresponding author, E-mail: rajirajitha41@gmail.com
of 1.5 g cc-1. There were eight soil moisture conservation
methods. All these were tested in randomized block design,
and replicated thrice. The treatments were conventional
tillage (T1), vertical tillage with subsoiler upto a depth of
60 cm at an interval of 1.0 m followed by secondary tillage
(T2), deep ploughing with mouldboard plough upto a
depth of 40 cm followed by secondary tillage (T3),
conservation furrow after every row (T4), conservation
furrow after every four rows (T5), broad bed and furrow
(T6), straw mulch @ 5 tonnes ha-1 (T7) and soil mulch
(frequent intercultivation) (T8).
Rainfall during the crop period was about 340 mm
which was received in 20 rainy days. The crop was
subjected to about 30 days moisture stress from August
first week to September second week compared to
relatively uniform distribution except for about 20 days
from August first to third week. In general, rainfall was
ideal for growth and development of groundnut. Heavy
rainfall from September first week to October which was
coincided with reproductive stage of crop had favorable
effect on groundnut yield.
Soil moisture at 0 – 30 and 30 – 60 cm soil depth
during period of crop growth was measured
gravimetrically to assess the influence of these treatments
on the productivity of groundnut.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Soil moisture content during crop period of
groundnut was relatively high (10.9%) with vertical tillage
with subsoiler which was comparable with deep
ploughing (10.1%) and least in conventional tillage
(8.3%). With regard to moisture conservation practices,
broad bed and furrow method of moisture conservation
maintained consistently higher soil moisture at every soil
sampling and superior over rest of the treatments.
Conservation furrows may be effective on vertisols
with low infiltration rate and high moisture retentive
capacity. When rainfall exceeds infiltration rate of the
soil, excess water will be collected in furrows thereby
giving more opportune time for the soil to soak the water.
When once the water infiltrated into vertisol, it will be
retained in the soil for long, as it has higher moisture
retentive capacity. Therefore, this method was effective
on vertisols. Unless the intensity of rainfall is too high,
alfisol can take almost all the rainfall because of its high
infiltration rate. The shallow depth and hence its low
saturation need does not permit storage of water in the
soil. Once the soil is saturated there will not be any
beneficial effect of water collected in the furrows as it
leaves the soil as runoff. Hence, conservation furrow
method was not effective on alfisols.
Soil mulch was also not effective in conserving soil
moisture. This was due to the fact that there was no
difference in moisture conservation treatment between
conventional tillage and soil mulch except that soil mulch
was done during 20 days interval. Hence there was no
appreciable difference in soil moisture content due to
these two treatments. In view of the above drawbacks with
conservation furrows, soil mulch and conventional tillage
methods, subsoiling, deep tillage methods and broad bed
furrow method of moisture conservation resulted in high
soil moisture content all through the crop period.
Yield components and yield
Among moisture conservation practices, broad bed
and furrows resulted in higher number of pegs (54), total
(48) and filled pods (25.1). Relatively low moisture
content with conservation furrows, straw mulch and soil
mulch practices resulted in lower number of pegs, total
and filled pods plant-1.
The superiority of subsoiling, deep ploughing and
broad bed and furrows over other treatments could be
explained on the basis of increased moisture and nutrient
availability in altered moisture conservation techniques.
This could also be supported by better physical condition
of soil, i.e., lower bulk density, enhanced permeability,
better aeration and lower penetration resistance making
the soil to remain soft and moist due to the in-situ water
harvesting by reducing runoff losses. Venkateshwarlu and
Malaviya (2004) also reported similar findings. The 100
pod weight, 100 kernel weight and shelling percentage
also followed similar trend because of adequate available
soil moisture with subsoiling, deep tillage practices and
broad bed and furrow method of moisture conservation.
Similar increase in yield attributes with broad bed and
furrows were reported by Nimje (1992).
Pod and haulm yields were higher due to subsoiling
which were on par with the yield in deep tillage. There was
significant reduction in conventional tillage as compared
to above two methods. Among moisture conservation
practices, highest pod yield of 2056 kg ha-1 was obtained
from broad bed and furrow method of planting followed
by straw mulch, while soil mulch recorded the lowest
pod yield. The reduction in pod yields in soil mulch as
compared to BBF method was due to lesser number of
pegs, lesser total and filled pods or plant-1. The poor
physical condition of the soil mulch method probably
made it difficult for peg penetration and pod development.
Haulm yield also followed similar trend as that of
pod yield. Higher haulm yield was with those treatments
where the soil moisture was high due to broad bed and
furrows. Increase in haulm yield with adequate soil
moisture was observed by Venkateshwarlu (2006).
From the results, it is evident that subsoiling, deep
tillage methods and broad bed and furrow system of
moisture conservation practice are effective for
conserving rain water leading to higher productivity of
rainfed groundnut on sandy-loam soil.
LITERATURE CITED
Nimje, P.M. 1992. Effect of land treatment systems and
phosphorous fertilization on groundnut (Arachis
hypogaea) in Vertisols. Journal of oilseeds research.
9(2): 227-233.
Venkateshwarlu, B and Malaviya, D.D. 2004.
Performance of groundnut as influenced by land
configurations and fertilizer management under
rainfed conditions of South Saurastra. The Andhra
Agricultural Journal. 51 (3 & 4): 292-295.
Venkateshwarlu, B. 2006. Nutrient uptake and quality of
groundnut as influenced by moisture conservation
practices and fertilizer management. The Andhra
Agricultural Journal. 56(3&4).
A STUDY TO ASSESS THE CONSTRAINTS FACED BY THE
AGRICULTURAL OFFICERS IN UTILIZATION OF ICTs
T. SRI CHANDANA*, P.V. SATHYA GOPAL, V. SAILAJA, A.V. NAGAVANI AND S.V. PRASAD
Department of Agricultural Extension, S.V. Agricultural College, ANGRAU, Tirupati-517 502, Chittoor Dt., A.P.
ABSTRACT
The present investigation was carried out in Nellore, Srikakulam, Ananthapur districts of Andhra Pradesh during 2016-17.
The main objective of the study was to analyze the constraints faced by the agricultural officers in ICT utilization. Ex-post- facto
research design was followed for the study. A total 120 respondents covering the three districts equally were selected for the
study. The most important constraints faced by the Agricultural Officers were ‘Lack of expertise and skills in using ICT’, ‘Poor/
limited internet speed’, ‘High cost of ICT equipment’, ‘Limited budget for purchase of ICT equipment’, ‘Lack of ICT facility at
office’, ‘Lack of personal ICT equipment / tools’ and ‘Lack of ICT technicians and professionals in the vicinity’, ‘Poor annual
maintenance of the ICT equipment’, ‘Overburdened allied activities’ and ‘Limited power supply’. The important suggestions
given by the majority of agricultural officers to overcome the constraints were ‘Periodical training programmes on application of
ICTs’, ‘Creating awareness on importance of different ICT tools and programmes’, ‘Uninterrupted high speed internet with high
quality broad band facility’, ‘Establishing WIFI in all the agricultural offices’, ‘Engaging an ICT professional / technician on
permanent basis’, ‘Proper mechanism for annual maintenance of ICTs’, ‘Uninterrupted power supply in the agricultural offices’,
‘Hands -on training through coaching and counseling’, ‘Allocation of enough budget to buy latest ICT tools and programmes’,
‘Regular updating of recent advances in ICT’ and ‘Special budget for capacity building for the Agricultural Officers’ were the
suggestions given by the Agricultural Officers.
KEYWORDS: Constraints, suggestions, agricultural officers, ICT utilization.
Date of Receipt: 03-06-2017 Date of Acceptance: 20-09-2017
*Corresponding author, E-mail: talarisrichandana39@gmail.com
Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
are key enablers of globalization. They allow for the
efficient and cost-effective flow of information, products,
people and capital across national and regional
boundaries. Information communication technologies
include technologies and methods for storing, managing,
processing information (e.g., computers, softwares, digital
and non digital libraries) and for communicating
information such as mail and email, radio television,
telephones, cell phones, pagers, instant messaging and
“the web.” However, in everyday speech, ICTs commonly
refer to electronic and digital devices and the software
used for storing, retrieving, and communicating
information. Extension workers at the grassroots level
who have direct links with farmers and other actors, are
well positioned to make use of ICTs to access modern
knowledge or other types of information that could
facilitate the accomplishment of their related activities.
But the ‘Agricultural Officers’ are facing many
constraints in utilization of ICTs. Taking into
consideration these limitations, the study was undertaken
to find out the constraints faced by the Agricultural
Officers in utilization of ICT and suggestions to overcome
these constraints.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A study was conducted with ex-post-facto research
design to study the constraints faced by the Agricultural
Officers in ICT utilization. The Andhra Pradesh state was
chosen as the locale of the study, since the researcher
belongs to the state and was familiar with the local
conditions as well as organizational set up in the State
Department of Agriculture. All the three regions in the
newly formed state of Andhra Pradesh viz., Rayalaseema,
Coastal Andhra and North Coastal region were included
in the sutdy. One district from each region was selected
by simple random sampling procedure. The names of the
selected districts were Ananthapur from Rayalaseema
region, Nellore from Coastal region and Srikakulam from
North Coastal region. From each of the selected district,
40 Agricultural Officers were selected as respondents by
following simple random sampling procedure. The sample
constituted to a total of 120 respondents.
‘Constraint’ was operationalized as the
unsatisfactory situations with respect to extent of
Information Communication Technology (ICT) utilization
as perceived by the ‘Agricultural Officers’. A set of ten
important constraints were identified in consultation with
‘Agricultural Officers’ and also experts in the field of
ICT. They were measured on 3 point continuum i.e. ‘major
reason’, ‘minor reason’ and ‘not a reason’ by giving scores
2, 1 and 0 respectively. ‘Suggestion’ was operationally
defined as the requirements expressed by the ‘Agricultural
Officers’ in order to fulfill their extent of Information
Communication Technology (ICT) utilization needs.
Information from respondents was sought through an open
ended questionnaire.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
It is evident from the Table 1 that ‘Lack of expertise
and skills in using ICT’, ‘Poor/ limited internet speed’,
‘High cost of ICT equipment’, ‘Limited budget for
purchase of ICT equipment’ and ‘Lack of ICT facility at
office’ were the important constraints faced by the
Agricultural Officers with 84.58, 81.67, 79.58, 76.25 and
74.58 per cent and ranked from first to fifth respectively.
Further analysis of table clearly reveals that both ‘Lack
of personal ICT equipment / tools’ and ‘Lack of ICT
technicians and professionals in the vicinity’, ‘Poor
annual maintenance of the ICT equipment’,
‘Overburdened allied activities’ and ‘Limited power
supply’ was regarded as the least important constraints
faced by the Agricultural Officers with 73.75, 73.75,
73.33, 68.33 and 58.33 per cent and ranked from sixth to
tenth rank respectively. These results are in line with
findings of Agwu et al. (2008), Amar et al. (2011),
Aromolaran et al. (2016), Cynthia and Nwabugwu (2016),
Omotesho et al. (2012), Shirke and Rahool (2013), Umar
et al. (2015).
It is evident from the Table 2 that ‘Periodical training
programmes on application of ICTs is one of the major
suggestions given by the respondents and it was ranked
first with 91.46 per cent. ‘Creating awareness on
importance of different ICT tools and programmes’,
‘Uninterrupted high speed internet with high quality broad
band facility’, ‘Establishing WIFI in all the agricultural
offices’ and ‘engaging an ICT professional / technician
on permanent basis’ are the important suggestions given
by the Agricultural Officers with 88.23, 87.41, 80.52,
80.16 per cent and ranked from second to fifth
respectively. ‘Proper mechanism for annual maintenance
of ICTs’, ‘Uninterrupted power supply in the agricultural
offices’, ‘Hands -on training through coaching and
counseling’, ‘Allocation of enough budget to buy latest
ICT tools and programmes’, ‘Regular updating of recent
advances in ICT’ and ‘special budget for capacity building
for the Agricultural Officers’ with 74.28, 72.89, 69.05,
64.21, 60.02 and 58.61 per cent and ranked from sixth to
eleventh respectively. These results are in line with
findings of Aboh (2008), Salau and Saingbe (2008),
Omotesho et al. (2012), Ezeh (2013), Khamoushi and
Gupta (2014).
CONCLUSION
Organizing need based training programmes and
access to different ICT tools were the major
recommendations derived out of the present research
study. Hence the policy makers have to design appropriate
strategies keeping in view of the results of the study.
LITERATURE CITED
Aboh, C.L. 2008. Assessment of the Frequency of ICT
tools usage by Agricultural Extension Agents in IMO
state, Nigeria. Journal of Agriculture and Social
Research. 8(2).
Agwu, A.E., Uche-Mba, U.C and Akinnagbe, O.M. 2008.
Use of Information Communication Technologies
(ICTs) among Researchers, Extension Workers and
Farmers in Abia and Enugu States: Implications for
a National Agricultural Extension Policy on ICTs.
Journal of Agricultural Extension. 12(1): 37-49.
Amar Tayade, Chinchmalatpure, U.R and Supe, S.V. 2011.
Information and Communication Technology used
by the Scientists in Krishi Vigyan Kendra and
Regional Resaerch Centre. Journal of Global
Communication. 4(1): 16-26.
Aromolaran, A.K., Alarima, C.I., Akerele, D., Oyekunle, O
and Leramo, G.A. 2016. Use of Internet for Innovation
Management by Extension Agents in Oyo State.
Journal of Agricultural Extension. 20(1): 96-106.
Cynthia, E.N and Nwabugwu, T.S. 2016. Challenges to
Adoption of ICT Tools BY Agricultural Extension
Workers in Anambra State, Nigeria. Asian Journal
of Agricultural Extension, Economics and Sociology.
10(4): 1-6.
Ezeh, N.A. 2013. Extension agents access and utilization
of information and communication technology (ICT)
in extension service delivery in South East Nigeria.
Journal of Agricultural Extension and RuralDevelopment. 5(11): 266-276.
Khamoushi, S and Gupta, J. 2014. Factors encouraging
ICT usage by agricultural extension scientists in
North India. Journal of Agricultural Extension and
Rural Development. 6(4):132-137.
Omotesho, K.F., Ogunlade, I.O and Muhammad Lawal.
2012. Assessment of Access to Information and
Communication Technology among Agricultural
Extension Officers in Kwara State, Nigeria. Asian
Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development. 2(2):
220-225.
Salau, E.S and Saingbe, N.D. 2008. Access and Utilization
of Information and Communication Technologies
(ICTs) Among Agricultural Researchers and
Extension Workers in Selected Institutions in
Nasarawa State of Nigeria. 4(2): 1-11.
Shirke, V.S and Rahool, M.T. 2013. Use of ICT
Components by the Extension Personnel of
Karnataka State. International Journal of Extension
Education. 9:81-84.
Umar, S.I., Mohammed, U.S., Jibrin, S., Usman, R.K.,
Sallawu, H and Usman, M.H. 2015. Utilization of
Information and Communciation Technologies
(ICTs) by Agricultural Extension Workers in Niger
State, Nigeria. International Journal of Agricultural
Science, Research and Technology in Extension and
Education Systems. 5(1): 1-6.
EFFECT OF SECONDARY NUTRIENTS AND ZINC ON GROWTH AND
YIELD OF BLACKGRAM
E. JEEVANA LAKSHMI*, P.V. RAMESH BABU, G. PRABHAKAR REDDY, P. UMAMAHESWARI
AND A. PRATAP KUMAR REDDY
Department of Agronomy, S.V. Agricultural College, ANGRAU, Tirupati-517 502, Chittoor Dt., A.P.
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during rabi, 2016-17 on sandy loam soils of college farm, Agricultural College, Mahanandi
to study the effect of foliar sprays of secondary nutrients and zinc nutrition on growth, yield attributes and yield of blackgram.
The experiment comprised of eight treatments viz., control (T1), RDF (20-50-0 kg N-P2O5-K2O ha-1) (T2), RDF + foliar application
of one per cent CaNO3 (T3), RDF + foliar application of one per cent MgNO3 (T4), RDF + foliar application of one per cent
Sulphur (T5), RDF + foliar application of one per cent each of CaNO3, MgNO3 and Sulphur (T6), RDF + foliar application of
ZnSO4 @ 0.2 per cent (T7), T6 + foliar application of ZnSO4 @ 0.2 per cent (T8). The results revealed that all the growth
parameters, yield attributes and yield were significantly higher with the foliar spray of secondary nutrients (Ca, Mg and Sulphur)
and zinc at 25 and 45 DAS along with recommended dose of fertilizers (T8).
KEYWORDS: Secondary nutrients, zinc, growth parameters, yield and blackgram.
INTRODUCTION
Pulses are integral part of human diet providing a
major source of dietary protein. Blackgram is one among
these food legumes which is well suited under intensive
cropping systems due to its short duration. In India,
blackgram is cultivated in an area of 2.346 M ha with a
production of 1.959 M t.
In Andhra Pradesh, it occupies an area of 0.315 M
ha producing 0.298 M t. The average productivity of
blackgram in Andhra Pradesh (946 kg ha-1) is high as
compared to India’s productivity (604 kg ha-1) (Indiastat,
2015), Being leguminous crops pulses were ignored in
the aspect of nutrient management which is of great
concern.
Blackgram as a pulse specially need more amounts
of Ca, Mg and S. The supplementation of these essential
nutrients through soil application is a common practice.
But soil applied nutrients may or may not be available to
plants due to several soil physico-chemical reactions and
the entire fertilizer is not utilized by the crop within the
season especially relating to their short duration. The
excess fertilizers not only increase the cost of cultivation
but also pollute the dynamic soil system. Hence, supplying
these small amounts through foliage improves the quality
of produce by reaching the site of food synthesis directly
and preserving the crop yields with low environmental
impact.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A field experiment was conducted during rabi, 2016-
17 on sandy loam soils of college farm, Agricultural
College, Mahanandi, Andhra Pradesh. The soil was
neutral in reaction, high in phosphorus, potassium and
sulphur, medium in calcium, low in magnesium and nearly
medium in zinc. The experiment comprised of eight
treatments viz., control (T1), RDF (20-50-0 kg N-P2O5-
K2O ha-1) (T2), RDF + foliar application of one per cent
CaNO3 (T3), RDF + foliar application of one per cent
MgNO3 (T4), RDF + foliar application of one per cent
sulphur (T5), RDF + foliar application of one per cent
each of CaNO3, MgNO3 and sulphur (T6), RDF + foliar
application of ZnSO4 @ 0.2 per cent (T7), T6 + foliar
application of ZnSO4 @ 0.2 per cent (T8).The test variety
was TBG-104. The trail was laid out in RBD replicated
thrice. The foliar spray of nutrients was carried out at 25
and 45 DAS @ 500 l ha-1. Five plants in each plot were
marked separately for non destructive sampling and
destructive samples were drawn from the gross plot
leaving the extreme border row. Statistical significance
was tested by ‘F’ value at 5 per cent level of probability
and wherever the ‘F’ value was found significant, critical
difference was worked out and the values were furnished.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth parameters
The results of the investigation revealed that, the
growth parameters (plant height, leaf area and dry matter
production) of blackgram were significantly influenced
by foliar application of secondary nutrients and zinc
(Table 1.). The highest values of growth parameters were
recorded with T6 + foliar application ZnSO4 @ 0.2 per
cent (T8) treatment, however it was comparable with RDF
+ foliar application of one per cent each of CaNO3,
MgNO3 and sulphur (T6) treatment.The treatment control
(T1) recorded significantly lowest values of plant height
and dry matter production over the rest of the treatments
tried during the experimentation.
With regard to individual foliar sprays of secondary
nutrients and zinc, RDF + foliar application of one per
cent MgNO3 (T4) treatment recorded higher growth
parameters and was at par with RDF + foliar application
of one per cent CaNO3 (T3) treatment. While, RDF + foliar
application of one per cent sulphur(T5) was comparable
with RDF + foliar application ZnSO4 @ 0.2 per cent (T7)
treatment which in turn was on par with RDF (T2) for all
the growth parameters recorded.
The combined spray of nutrients i.e. T6 + foliar
application of ZnSO4 @ 0.2 per cent (T8) treatment
recorded highest growth parameters and this might be
due to the balanced supply of the nutrients which
promoted the plant growth processes. In addition to
secondary nutrients zinc might have played an important
role in the production of IAA and there by increased the
growth characters. The increments in the growth traits
through magnesium foliar application might be due to its
role in the synthesis of metabolic products and activation
of many enzymes which in turn affect the plant growth.
Similar results of increase in the growth parameters with
foliar application of magnesium and calcium were reported
by Rady and Osman (2010) and Deotale et al. (2015).
Yield attributes and yield
Yield attributes (number of pods plant-1, seeds pod-1
and 1000 seed weight) and yield were highest with the
application of T6 + foliar application ZnSO4 @ 0.2 per
cent (T8) treatment which was at par with RDF + foliar
application of one per cent each of CaNO3, MgNO3 and
sulphur (T6) (Table 2 and 3). Regarding harvest index all
the foliar spray treatments except control (T1) and RDF
(T2) were on par with each other.
Among the individual foliar sprays of secondary
nutrients and zinc, RDF + foliar application of one per
cent MgNO3 (T4) treatment achieved higher values of
yield attributes and yield which was comparable with +
foliar application of one per cent CaNO3 (T3) treatment
However, 1000-seed weight was higher with RDF + foliar
application of one per cent sulphur (T5) treatment. RDF
+ foliar application ZnSO4 @ 0.2 per cent (T7) treatment
recorded non significant increase over RDF (T2) with
regard to all the yield attributes and yield.
Higher yield attributes and yield were noticed with
the combined foliar spray of secondary nutrients and zinc
which might be attributed due to added advantage of zinc
to secondary nutrients leading to optimum availability of
nutrients for luxurious crop growth and efficient
partitioning of assimilates from source to sink (Prasanna
et al., 2013). Choudhary et al. (2014) found higher seed
yield with foliar spray of S and Zn, while Veerabhadrappa
and Yeledhalli (2005) with Ca and S. Among the
individual secondary nutrient foliar sprays, MgNO3 foliar
spray found to be promising in obtaining the higher
number of pods plant-1 which correlates strongest to the
yield and this might be due to enhanced chlorophyll
concentration and photosynthetic rate supplying
assimilates to developing pods (Neuhaus et al., 2014).
Foliar application of sulphur had profound influence on
the 1000 seed weight as sulphur being a part of amino
acids it might have activated the enzymes and seed
formation. These results were also supported by Sarkar
and Pal (2006) and Gokila et al. (2015).
LITERATURE CITED
Choudhary, P., Jhajharia, A and Kumar, R. 2014. Influence
of sulphur and zinc fertilization on yield, yield
components and quality traits of soybean (Glycine
max L.). The Bioscan. 9 (1): 137-142.
Deotale, R. D., Mahale, S. A., Patil, S. R., Sahane, A. N
and Sawant, P. P. 2015. Effect of foliar sprays of
nitrate salts on morpho-physiological traits and yield
of greengram. Journal of Soils and Crops. 25 (2):
392-392.
Gokila, B., Baskar, K and Saravanapandian, P. 2015.
Effect of sulphur supplementation on growth and
yield of blackgram in typic Rhodustalf. International
Journal of Farm Sciences. 5 (4): 56-62.
Indiastat, 2015. https://www.indiastat.com/
Neuhaus, C., Geilfus, C. M and Mühling, K. H. 2014.
Increasing root and leaf growth and yield in Mgdeficient
faba beans (Vicia faba) by MgSO4 foliar
fertilization. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil
Science. 177 (5): 741-747.
Prasanna, K. L., Naidu, S. M. M., Sumathi, V and
Nagamani, C. 2013. Effect of nitrogen and zinc on
growth, yield and economics of clusterbean
[Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub]. The Andhra
Agricultural Journal. 60 (2): 260-263.
Rady, M. M and Osman, A. Sh. 2010. Possibility of
overcoming the adverse conditions for growth of
bean plants in sandy calcareous soil by using biophosphorus
fertilizer and magnesium foliar
applications. Egyptian Journal of Horticulture. 37
(1): 85-101.Sarkar, R. K and Pal, P. K. 2006. Effect of pre-sowing
seed treatment and foliar spray of nitrate salts on
growth and yield of greengram. Indian Journal of
Agricultural Sciences. 76 (1): 62-65.
Veerabhadrappa, B. H and Yeledhalli, N. A. 2005. Effect
of soil and foliar application of nutrients on growth
and yield of groundnut. Karnataka Journal of
Agricultural Sciences. 18 (3):814-816.
BIOLOGY OF Cryptolaemus montrouzieri MULSANT ON PAPAYA MEALYBUG,
Paracoccus marginatus WILLIAMS AND GRANARA DE WILLINK
A. MANEESHA*, S.R. KOTESWARA RAO, T. MURALI KRISHNA AND P. SUDHAKAR
Department of Entomology, S.V. Agricultural College, ANGRAU, Tirupati-517 502, Chittoor Dt., A.P.
ABSTRACT
A lab experiment was conducted during 2017 at Insectary, Department of Entomology, S.V. Agricultural College, Tirupati
to study the biology of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri on different life stages of papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus. The
results revealed that the developmental period of C. montrouzieri was significantly maximum (40.80 days) when reared on
ovisacs of papaya mealybug followed by on 1st instar nymph (36.20 days), 2nd instar nymph (33.80) and was minimum when fed
on 3rd instar nymphs (28.20 days) of papaya mealybug.
KEYWORDS: Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, Paracoccus marginatus, total developmental period.
Date of Receipt: 06-06-2017 Date of Acceptance: 09-08-2017
*Corresponding author, E-mail: addankimaneesha@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Papaya is infested by several insect pests of which
mealybug cause major losses to the yield. The papaya
mealybug Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara
de Willink 1992 (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), is a
notorious pest of papaya. It is a highly polyphagous pest
of 133 plant species belonging to 48 families (Sakthivel
et al., 2012).
In India, occurrence of the pest had been reported
first from Coimbatore area of Tamil Nadu in 2008 on
papaya (Muniappan et al., 2008) and later in Kerala
(Krishnakumar and Rajan, 2009; Lyla and Philip,2010),
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra,Tripura and
Odisha. Papaya mealybug infestation causes clusters of
cotton – like masses of the insect on the aboveground
portion of plants. The mealybug sucks plant sap by
inserting its stylets into the epidermis of the leaf, stem
and fruit. While, feeding on the plant fluid, it injects its
toxic saliva into the host which ultimately leads to the
death of the plant.
The mealybug is called as “hard to kill pest of fruit
crops” (Lower, 1968). However, there are several reasons
which may account for this fact. So far, various pesticides
have been attempted for the management of mealybug
either singly or in combinations but did not give desired
control of the pest. The reason is that only those sheltering
in the crevices of the bark escape and re-establish their
population quickly (Manjunath, 1985). The most
important factors are their habitat and the waxy coating
present on the body. The waxy coating present on their
body limits the efficiency of insecticides. This condition
limits the use of insecticides for management of
mealybug. The effective and safer method to manage this
pest is said to be the biological control (Rao and David,
1958).Among the predators of mealybugs, the Australian
lady beetle, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant
(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) has been reported to be a
general predator of mealybugs at all stages of its
development. Both the stages of the predator i.e., grub
and adult are voracious feeder on all the stages of
mealybug. It is commonly referred as mealybug destroyer.
It has been employed as the possible solution for
combating the menace of the pest around the world.
The biological suppression of mealybugs through
this potent predator in India was well documented (Rao
et al., 1971; Babu and Azam, 1989). In other countries,
C. montrouzieri had proved effective as it is evident from
the study of Smith and Armitage (1920) who was
succeeded in keeping the destructive mealybugs in
California by large scale multiplication of beetles. The
predator has played a major role in the control of different
sucking pests especially mealybugs (Mani and
Krishnamoorthy, 2008; Shylaja et al. 2011). Keeping this
in view, biology of C. montrouzieri on different life stages
of P. marginatus was studied under laboratory.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Multiplication of prey
The papaya mealybug (PMB), Paracoccus
marginatus was used as prey throughout the study period.
Mass multiplication of papaya mealybug, Paracoccus
marginatus was done on potato sprouts under laboratory
conditions at 25 ± 2 0
C and 75 ± 2 per cent RH.
Potatoes were used as an alternate food source for
rearing of mealybugs (Serrano and Laponite, 2002). Seed
potatoes with eyes were brought from local market, washed
and disinfected in 5 per cent sodium hypochlorite solution.
After cleaning, the potatoes were treated with gibberellic
acid 100 ppm solution for half an hour and placed under
dark condition in wet gunny bags for four to five days to
induce sprouting. Later, these sprouted potatoes were
transferred to rearing cages for inoculation of mealybug.
P. marginatus colonies were collected from the infested
papaya plants from surroundings of Tirupati. The colonies
were transferred on to the sprouted potatoes using camel
hair brush or entire infested leaves were placed over the
sprouted potatoes for two to three days. The sprouted
potatoes became fully infested within 20-30 days.
Multiplication of predator
Initial culture of C. montrouzieri was obtained from
National Institute of Plant Health Management (NIPHM),
Hyderabad and reared in laboratory on mealybug, P.
marginatus. Freshly emerged adults of C. montrouzieri
were released and maintained on the sprouted potatoes
infested with P. marginatus in the same rearing cages.
Freshly laid eggs and grubs were gently removed with
the help of camel hair brush and used for further studies
and multiplication.
Biology including egg period, duration of different
instars, total grub period, pre- pupal and pupal period,
total developmental period was studied in Completely
Randomized Design with four treatments and replicated
five times.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the present findings, it was observed that the mean
incubation period, duration of I, II, III and IV instars,
total grub period, pre-pupal period, pupal period and total
developmental period of C. montrouzieri when fed on
ovisacs of P. marginatus was 6.20 ± 0.20, 4.40 ± 0.51,
5.40 ± 0.24, 6.60 ± 0.40, 7.60 ± 0.24, 24.00 ± 0.70, 2.20
± 0.20, 8.40 ± 0.24 and 40.80 ± 0.86 days, respectively.
The mean incubation period, duration of I, II, III and IV
instars, total grub period, pre-pupal period, pupal period
and total developmental period of C. montrouzieri when
fed on I instar nymphs of P. marginatus was 5.20 ± 0.20,
3.60 ± 0.24, 4.80 ± 0.20, 5.40 ± 0.24, 6.40 ± 0.40, 20.20
± 0.73, 2.60 ± 0.24, 8.20 ± 0.37 and 36.20 ± 1.24 days
(Table 1), respectively. The mean incubation period,
duration of I, II, III and IV instars, total grub period, prepupal
period, pupal period and total developmental period
of C. montrouzieri when fed on II instar nymphs of
P. marginatus was 4.80 ± 0.37, 3.20 ± 0.20, 3.80 ± 0.20,
5.60 ± 0.24, 5.80 ± 0.20, 18.40 ± 0.51, 2.80 ± 0.20, 7.80
± 0.37 and 33.80 ± 0.51 days (Table 1), respectively. The
mean incubation period, duration of I, II, III and IV instars,
total grub period, pre-pupal period, pupal period and total
developmental period of C. montrouzieri when fed on III
instar nymphs of P. marginatus was 2.80 ± 0.37, 3.60 ± 0.24,
3.40 ± 0.24, 4.40 ± 0.24, 4.20 ± 0.20, 14.80 ± 0.86, 2.40 ±
0.24, 7.40 ± 0.24 and 28.20 ± 0.86 days (Table 1), respectively.
In the present investigation, minimum total
developmental period of C. montrouzieri was observed
when fed on III instar nymphs of P. marginatus while,
the maximum total developmental period was on ovisacs
of papaya mealybug (Table .1).
The results of the present study are in close
agreement with Gore et al. (2013) who reported that a
significantly minimum duration to the extent of 17.82
days was required by Cryptolaemus montrouzieri to
complete the entire grub period when fed on second instar
nymphs of Phenacoccus solenopsis, while, maximum was
on when fed with eggs of P. solenopsis. Also, Deokar et
al. (2013) reported that the maximum total developmental
period of C. montrouzieri was 51.6 days on eggs of
Maconellicoccus hirsustus. While, it was found to be
41.18 and 38.92 days when reared on I and II instar
nymphs of M. hirsutus, respectively.
PRODUCTIVITY AND ECONOMICS OF SUMMER GREENGRAM [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek]
AS INFLUENCED BY DIFFERENT ORGANIC MANURE AND ORGANIC SPRAYS
K. BHARGAVI*, V. SUMATHI, G. KRISHNA REDDY AND V. UMAMAHESH
Department of Agronomy, S.V. Agricultural College, ANGRAU, Tirupati-517 502, Chittoor Dt., A.P.
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted during summer, 2017 at agricultural college farm, Tirupati to study the effect of organic
manures and organic sprays on the productivity and economics of summer greengram. The results revealed that poultry manure
recorded highest seed and haulm yield of summer greengram. compared to remaining treatments. Among the organic sprays
panchagavya spray resulted higher seed and haulm yield of greengram. Higher gross and net returns and B:C ratio were realized
with poultry manure and panchagavya spray compared to control.
KEYWORDS: Organic manure, economics, panchagavya, seed yield.
India grows nearly 23.55 m hectares of pulses with
an annual production of 17.15 m tones and an average
productivity of 728 kg ha-1. In Andhra Pradesh, it is
cultivated in 1.04 m hectares with a production of 0.95 m
tonnes and with a productivity of 911 kg ha-1 (Indiastat,
2015). Every 100 g of edible portion of greengram seed
contains 75 mg calcium, 4.5 mg phosphorus, 24.5 g
protein and 348 kilo calories of energy. Thus, increase in
production of this crop can meet the expectations of the
food policy makers and nutrition planners (Kramany et
al., 2001).
In general both under rainfed and irrigated
conditions, crops are grown during kharif to utilize the
rainfall and in rabi to use residual moisture, leaving
summer fallow, where the fields would remain fallow for
3 to 4 months from February to April. Looking into the
lurking opportunity, summer greengram can be introduced
into the cropping system to meet the demand of pulses.
Summer greengram can be introduced into the
cropping system as it takes only 60 to 65 days to maturity,
so the extra short duration varieties fit in very well within
the available sowing window. It is grown solely on the
available residual moisture and with the involvement of
least farm inputs. Summer greengram has fast growing
habit without much agronomic care and management,
weed problems are also well taken care of, mainly on
account of its smothering growth habit and ground
covering ability well within two to three weeks from the
time of sowing.
Heavy use of chemicals in agriculture has weakened
the ecological base in addition to degrading the soil, water
resources and quality of the food. At this juncture, a keen
awareness has sprung on the adoption of ‘Organic
Farming’ as a remedy to cure the ills of modern chemical
agriculture. Organic farming is gaining importance in
recent years as it sustains crop production as well as
environment.
Greengram is highly responsive to nutrients. Nutrient
application is essentially required to improve growth and
yield of greengram. FYM, vermicompost and poultry
manure not only increase organic carbon status of the
soils but also increase the soil water holding capacity,
flocculation of soil and availability of all micro and macro
nutrients, thus improve the soil and crop production. It
also enhances the activity of microorganism in soils which
further enhance solubility of nutrients and their
consequent availability (Chhonkar, 2002). Panchayagavya
and jeevamrutha which are organic, has a potential to
play the role in promoting growth and providing immunity
in plant system. The use of panchagavya and jeevamrutha
not only provides the nutrients but also hydrates the leaf
cells, improves the chlorophyll content thus increase the
photosynthetic activity. As they contain nutrients, growth
promoting hormones and naturally occuring, beneficial,
effective micro-organisms predominantly, lactic acid
bacteria, yeast, actinomycetes, photosynthetic bacteria
and certain fungi besides beneficial and proven fertilizers
such as Azotobacter, Azospirillum and phospho bacterium
which have the beneficial effect especially in improving
soil health, growth and yield of crops.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The field experiment was conducted during summer
season of 2017 at S.V.Agricultural College Farm, Tirupati.
The experimental soil was sandy loam in texture, neutral
in reaction (pH 6.8), low in organic carbon (0.38 per cent)
and available nitrogen (150 kg ha-1), medium in available
phosphorus (12 kg ha-1) and high in available potassium
(161 kg ha-1).
The experiment was laid out in split plot design with
three replications. The main plot consisted of four
treatments of organic manures viz., Control (M1), Farm
yard manure (M2), Vermicompost (M3) and Poultry
manure (M4) and sub plots consisted three treatments of
organic sprays viz., Control (S1), Panchagavya (S2) and
Jeevamrutha (S3).
The scheduled organic manures were thoroughly
incorporated in to the soil 15 days prior to sowing of crop.
Panchagavya is prepared one month before application
and jeevamrutha is prepared 2-5 days before application
and sprayed 10 days after sowing to 10 days before
harvest.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The higher seed yield (726 kg ha-1) was recorded
with the poultry manure, which was higher than remaining
treatments (Table 1) The next best treatment was
vermicompost which was however comparable with farm
yard manure but significantly higher than the control
and regarding the haulm yield highest was produced with
poultry manure which was however, comparable with
vermicompost. The next best treatment was farm yard
manure. The lowest haulm yield was recorded with
control. Higher seed yield and haulm yield might be
accounted to the increased supply of almost all plant
essential nutrients by translocation of photosynthates
accumulated under the influence of the source of organic
nutrients. Further, the translocation and accumulation of
photosynthates in the economic sinks thus increased yield
attributes, chlorophyll content and nitrate reductase
activity resulted in increased grain yield. The same was
obvious through the findings of Yadav et al. (2007), Rao
et al. (2013) and Singh et al. (2015)
As regards the organic sprays, highest seed and
haulm yield was recorded with panchagavya, which was
at par with jeevamrutha with no significant difference
between them, lowest seed and haulm yield was recorded
with control. Higher seed yield and haulm yield might be
due to IAA and GA present in panchagavya when foliar
sprays were done could have created stimuli in the plant
system which in turn increased the production of growth
regulators in cell system and the action of growth
regulators in plant system stimulated the necessary growth
and development coupled with better translocation and
accumulation of photosynthates from source to sink
increased the grain yield. Similar results were obtained
by Somasundaram et al. (2007), Swaminathan et al.
(2007), Chaudhari et al. (2013) and Yadav and Tripathi
(2013).
The higher gross returns were obtained with the
poultry manure tried, which was superior to all other
treatments. The next best treatment was vermicompost,
which was however comparable with farm yard manure.
Control resulted in the lowest gross returns. Poultry
manure produced the highest net returns and B : C ratio
which was significantly superior to all other treatments.
This was followed by farm yard manure and the next best
treatment was control. The lowest net returns and B : C
ratio was observed with vermicompost. Highest gross
returns might be because of better nutrition to the crop
due to steady application of organic sprays resulting in
higher grain and haulm yield. Similar findings were
reported by Yadav and Tripathi (2013) and Rao et al.
(2013).
With regard to the organic sprays, the higher gross
returns, net returns and B:C ratio were recorded with
panchagavya, which was at par with jeevamruta. Lowest
gross returns were obtained with control. Higher gross
returns might be because of better nutrition to the crop
due to steady application of organic (Table .2) sprays
resulting in higher grain and haulm yield. Similar findings
were reported by Yadav and Tripathi (2013) and Rao et
al. (2013).
Hence it can be concluded the higher productivity
and economics of summer greengram can be realized with
the application of poultry manure and panchagavya is
more suitable for southern Agro-climatic zone of A.P.
LITERATURE CITED
Chaudhari, I.A., Patel, D.M., Patel, G.N and Patel, S.M.
2013. Effect of various organic sources of nutrients
on growth and yield of summer greengram [Vigna
radiata (L.) Wilczek]. Crop Research. 46 (1- 3): 70-73.
Chhonkar, P.K. 2002. Soil research in India – some
oversights and failures. Journal of Indian Society of
Soil Science. 50(4): 382-432.
Indiastat, 2015.http:// www.indiastat.com
Kramany, E.L.M.F., Bahr, A.A and Gomaa, A.M. 2001.
Response of a local and some exotic mungbean
varieties. Acta Agronomica Hungrica. 49(3): 257-259.
Singh, R.V., Tripathi, S.K and Singh, R.P. 2015. Effect
of integrated nutrient management on productivity,
nutrient uptake and economics of greengram (Vigna
radiata L.) in custard apple-based agri-horti system
under rainfed condition. Current Advances in
Agricultural Sciences. 7(1): 76-78.
Somasundaram, E., Sankaran, N., Meena, S.,
Thiyagarajan, T.M., Chandaragiri, K and
Panneerselvam, S. 2007. Response of greengram to
varied levels of Panchagavya (organic nutrition)
foliar spray. Madras Agricultural Journal. 90(1-30):
169-172.Swaminathan, C., Swaminathan, V and Vijayalakshmi,
V. 2007. Panchagavya Boon to Organic Farming.
International Book Distributing Co., India.
Rao, K.T., Rao, A.U and Reddy, D.S. 2013. Residual
effect of organic manures on growth, yield and
economics of greengram in maize-sunflowergreengram
system. International Journal of
Agricultural Sciences. 9(1): 275-279.
Yadav, A.K., Varghese, K and Abraham, T. 2007.
Response of biofertilizer, poultry manure and
different levels of phosphorus on nodulation and
yield of greengram (Vigna radiata L.) CV. K-851.
Agricultural Science Digest. 27 (3): 213-215.
Yadav, P and Tripathi, A.K. 2013. Growth and yield of
greengram (Vigna radiata) under foliar application
of panchgavya and leaf extracts of endemic plants.
Indian Journal of Agronomy. 58 (4): 618-621.
STUDY OF CORRELATION AND PATH ANALYSIS IN GROUNDNUT
UNDER ORGANIC AND INORGANIC FERTILIZER MANAGEMENTS
P. APARNA*, M. SHANTHI PRIYA, D. MOHAN REDDY AND P. LATHA
S.V. Agricultural College, ANGRAU, Tirupati-517 502, Chittoor Dt., A.P.
ABSTRACT
Correlation and path co-efficient analysis were carried out for pod yield and its contributing characters in 168 germplasm
lines and five checks of groundnut. Correlation studies indicated that pod yield per plant was significantly and positively associated
with harvest index, 100 seed weight, kernel yield per plant, number of mature pods per plant, total number of pods per plant,
shelling percentage and number of pegs per plant. Path analysis revealed that kernel yield per plant under organic management
and kernel yield per plant and total number of pods per plant under inorganic fertilizer management recorded high positive direct
effect on pod yield per plant. Hence, it would be rewarding to give due importance on the selection of these traits for rapid
improvement in pod yield of groundnut.
KEYWORDS: Correlation, path analysis, groundnut.
Date of Receipt: 07-06-2017 Date of Acceptance: 29-09-2017
*Corresponding author, E-mail: aparna910papana@gmail.com
INTRODUCTION
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) (2n = 40), highly
self-pollinated legume crop grown in tropical and subtropical
regions of the world, is a good source of oil and
protein. It is a segmental allotetraploid, belongs to family
Fabaceae and is the major oilseed crop in India and in
Andhra Pradesh. Green revolution is one of the reason
for increased use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
resulting in several harmful effects which affected the
environment. Of late, organic farming is being advocated to
overcome these harmful effects of inorganic management.
But the major constraint for organic farming is the lack
of suitable varieties specifically bred to get higher
productivity and better quality (Dawson et al., 2011).
In several cases varieties that perform well in organic
systems have different yield ranking under inorganic
fertilizer management. Hence it would be a challenge for
the breeding sector to develop cultivars especially for
organic condition. In organic agriculture, the immediate
need is to make available greater quantity of organically
produced seed. Hence there is essential need to encourage
breeding programmes, designed in concert with organic
management.
Correlation in combination with path analysis
provides an opportunity to study the degree and direction
of association of yield with its component characters.
Thus, it helps in establishing suitable selection criteria
for improving the yield in the target environments. Hence
the present study was carried out to obtain information
on the magnitude of relationship of individual yield
components on yield, interrelationships among
themselves and to measure their relative importance.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The material for the present study comprised of 168
germplasm lines and five checks of groundnut evaluated
in two separate field experiments (organic and inorganic)
using Augumented design II, during kharif, 2016 at
dryland farm of S.V. Agricultural college, Tirupathi.
Under each management practice whole plot is divided
into six blocks. In each block 28 germplasm lines along
with five checks were sown. In each management practice
every germplasm line was sown in single row of 2 m
length with a spacing of 30 cm between the rows and 10
cm between the plants within the row. In organic
management practice, FYM @ 5 t ha-1 at the time of field
preparation was applied. Seed treatment was done with
beejamrutha before one day of sowing. Jeevamrutha was
applied at 15 days interval and panchagavya was applied
on 25th and 35th day after sowing and also whenever
pest incidence occurred.
In inorganic fertilizer management practice,
recommended dose of chemical fertilizers @ 20 kg N,
40 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O per hectare in the form of
urea, single super phosphate and murate of potash were
broadcasted before sowing. Seed treatment was done with
bavistin @ 3 g kg-1of seed For the control of insect pests
chlorofenopyr @ 2 ml l-1 was used. Except disease and
such as pest control measures, cultural practices such as
weeding, gypsum (@ 500 kg ha-1) application and
irrigation were followed in common for both management
practices to maintain good crop growth.
Observations were recorded on five randomly
selected plants in each germplasm line for 14 traits viz.,
days to 50 per cent flowering, days to maturity, plant
height (cm), number of primary branches per plant,
number of pegs per plant, number of mature pods per
plant, number of immature pods per plant, total number
of pods per plant, 100 seed weight (g), shelling percent
(%), sound mature kernel percentage (%), harvest index
(%), kernel yield per plant (g) and pod yield per plant
(g). The simple correlation coefficients were calculated
using the method given by Panse and Sukhatme (1985)
and path coefficient analysis as suggested by Dewey and
Lu, (1959).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The analysis of variance in respect of 14 characters
recorded significant differences among the entries for all
the characters under both organic and inorganic fertilizer
managements except for number of primary branches per
plant, shelling percentage and harvest index which were
non-significant under organic fertilizer management and
significant under inorganic fertilizer management
indicating the presence of considerable amounts of genetic
variation for different traits in the experimental material.
The data on all the fourteen characters was subjected to
statistical analysis. Simple correlation coefficients
between pod yield and its components under both organic
and inorganic fertilizer managements were presented in
Table 1 and 2.
Under organic fertilizer management practice pod
yield per plant showed highly significant and positive
correlation with kernel yield per plant (r = 0.963**)
followed by number of mature pods per plant (r =
0.832**), total number of pods per plant (r = 0.828**),
harvest index (r = 0.604**), 100 seed weight (r =
0.485**), days to maturity (r = 0.447**), number of pegs
per plant (r = 0.464**), days to 50% flowering (r =
0.276**) and shelling percentage (r = 0.340**). These
results indicate that increase in these traits leads to
increase in pod yield.
Under inorganic fertilizer management pod yield per
plant exhibited highly significant and positive relationship
with kernel yield per plant (r = 0.955**), total number of
pods per plant (r = 0.796**), number of mature pods per
plant (r = 0.794**), harvest index (r = 0.692**), 100 seed
weight (r = 0.545**), number of pegs per plant (r = 0.446**),
shelling percentage (r = 0.277**), number of immature
pods per plant (r = 0.265**), plant height (r = 0.244**)
and number of primary branches per plant (r= 0.162*)
indicating that increase in these traits would result in
increase in the pod yield.
Results of significant and positive association of pod
yield per plant with harvest index, total number of pods
per plant and 100 seed weight was reported by Maunde
et al. (2015). Significant and positive correlation of pod
yield per plant with kernel yield per plant and number of
mature pods per plant was registered by Kumar et al.
(2012) and Jain et al. (2016) and for number of primary
branches per plant by Vasanthi et al. (2015). The results
of significant and positive association for number of pegs
per plant, days to 50 per cent flowering and shelling
percentage were in accordance with the reports of
Mahalakshmi et al. (2005), Satish (2014) and Shukla and
Rai (2014) respectively.
Path coefficient analysis of pod yield per plant as
dependent variable and characters with significant
association with pod yield as independent variables was
conducted for organic and inorganic fertilizer
managements and the results were furnished in Table 3
and 4.
Under organic fertilizer management the trait kernel
yield per plant (1.09086) exhibited very high positive
direct effect and shelling percentage recorded high
negative direct effect (-0.29621) on pod yield per plant.
Similar high negative direct effect of shelling percentage
on pod yield per plant was registered by Kumar et al.
(2012) and Rao et al. (2014).
On the other hand 100 seed weight (0.02057),
number of pegs per plant (0.00426), number of mature
pods per plant (0.09194) exhibited negligible positive
direct effects on pod yield per plant. Days to 50 per cent
flowering (-0.00112), days to maturity (-0.02554), total
number of pods per plant (-0.03970) and harvest index
(-0.00817) showed negligible negative direct effects on
pod yield per plant. Negligible negative direct effect of
days to 50 per cent flowering on pod yield per plant was
reported by Korat et al. (2010) and similar trend for
harvest index by Venkateswarlu et al. (2007) and for days
to maturity by Pavankumar et al. (2014) was reported.
Under inorganic fertilizer management the traits,
total number of pods per plant (1.55957) and kernel yield
per plant (1.06911) showed very high positive direct
effects whereas number of mature pods per plant (-1.40893)
recorded very high negative direct effect on pod yield
per plant. Similar results were also found by Kumar et
al. (2012), Rao et al. (2014) and Jain et al. (2016), who
reported a very high positive direct effect of kernel yield
per plant with pod yield per plant and Patil et al. (2006)
have reported a positive direct effect of total number of
pods per plant with pod yield.
From the result of present investigation, it could be
concluded that kernel yield per plant under organic
management and kernel yield per plant and total number
of pods per plant under inorganic fertilizer management
were major contributing characters for pod yield.
Therefore, these traits should be given due consideration
for indirect selection to improve pod yield to obtain
superior genotypes under target environment.